the life-giving principle which animates them is not supposed to come from Muhammad. Nevertheless, candour compels us to admit that in one notable point every true Muslim sets the Christian a good example. The word Islam means complete submission to the will of God,' and a Muslim is one who submits. himself to that will without a murmur. The same candour, however, also suggests the inquiry whether the submission of the adherent of Islām may not be that of an abject slave, dreading the displeasure of a stern master, rather than of a loving child depending on its Father for life and breath and all things. 3. As to Brahmanism, we must, in fairness, allow that, according to its more fully developed system, the aim of union with God is held to be effected by faith in an apparently personal god, as well as by works and by knowledge. And here some of the lines of Brahmanical thought seem to intersect those of Christianity. But the apparent personality of the various Hindu gods melts away, on closer scrutiny, into a vague spiritual essence. It is true that God becomes man and interposes for the good of men, causing a seeming combination of the human and divine-and an apparent interchange of action and even loving sympathy between the Creator and His creatures. But can there be any real interaction or co-operation between divine and human personalities when all personal manifestations of the Supreme Being-gods as well as men-ultimately merge in the Oneness of the Infinite, and nothing remains permanently distinct from Him? It must be admitted that most remarkable language is used of Krishna (Vishnu), a supposed form of the Supreme, as the source of all life and energy (see to be based upon two ideas, viz. 1. Nothing really exists but God; all besides is illusion. 2. Union with God is the highest object of human effort (see p. 113 of this volume). The Shi'as keep with great solemnity the anniversary of the murder of Husain, son of 'Ali, on a particular day in the Muharram (or first month of their lunar year). Hasan is supposed to have been poisoned by his wife, but Husain was killed at Karbala by Yazid, son of the first Umayyad Khalif (commonly called Mu'aviya), who, instigated by Muhammad's favourite wife 'A-isha (daughter of Abubakr), opposed the succession of 'Ali's descendants, assumed the government, and transferred the Khalifate to Damascus. Hence the Shi'as perform pilgrimages to Karbala, rather than to Mecca. The Wahābīs are a recent fanatical sect, founded by a man named Wahab. They may be described as puritanical reformers, seeking to bring back Islām to its original purity. pp. 144-148, and see also pp. 456, 457); but if identified with the One God he can only, according to the Hindu theory, be the source of life in the sense of giving out life to reabsorb it into himself. If, on the other hand, he is held to be only an incarnation or manifestation of the Supreme Being in human form, then by a cardinal dogma of Brahmanism, so far from being a channel of life, his own life must be derived from a higher source into which it must finally be merged, while his claim to divinity can only be due to his possessing less of individuality as distinct from God than inferior creatures. 4. Finally, in Buddhism-as we have shown at p. 57-the extinction of personality and cessation of existence, which is the ultimate aim of this system, is effected by suppression of the passions, self-mortification, and abstinence from action. Buddha is no god, but only the ideal of what every man may become. He cannot, therefore, of course, be a source of even temporary life, when he is himself extinct. It is only in its high morality that Buddhism has common ground with Christianity. And can the only motive to the exercise of morality supplied by Buddhism-viz. on the one hand, the desire for non-existence; and, on the other, the hopes and fears connected with innumerable future existences-which existences are unconnected by conscious identity of being-be anything better than mere superstitious delusion? It is refreshing to turn from such unsatisfying systems, however interspersed with wise and even sublime sentiments, to the living, energizing Christianity of European nations, however lamentably fallen from its true standard, or however disgraced by the inconsistencies and shortcomings of nominal adherents-possessors of its name and form without its power. In conclusion, let me note one other point which of itself stamps our religion as the only system adapted to the requirements of the whole human race-the only message of salvation intended by God to be gradually pressed upon the acceptance of all His intelligent creatures, whether male or female, in all four quarters of the globe-I mean the position it assigns to women in relation to the stronger sex. It is not too much to affirm that the evils arising from the degradation of women, or at least the assumption of their supposed inferiority in the great religious systems of the East, constitute the principal bar to the progress and elevation of Asiatic nations. I refer the reader for evidence of this, as well as for fuller information on similar points, to pp. 257-259, 435-440 of the present volume. It is, perhaps, almost impossible, as well as unreasonable, to expect the natives of India generally to look at such a question from a European stand-point. Nevertheless, those enlightened Hindus and philanthropic Englishwomen who are now interesting themselves in the spread of female education throughout the East, may adduce good authority from India's own sacred books for striving to elevate the wives of India to a higher position than that they occupy in the present day. They have only to quote such passages as those referred to at p. 437, notes 1, 3, and p. 438 of this volume. To these may be added the remarkable definition of a wife given in Mahā-bhārata I. 3028 &c., of which I here offer a nearly literal version : A wife is half the man, his truest friend- A mother in all seasons of distress; A rest in passing through life's wilderness. No wonder if, when sentiments like these are found in the sacred literature of India', a hope is dawning that inveterate prejudices may eventually give way, and that both Hindus and Muslims may one day be brought to confess that one of the most valuable results of Christianity is the co-ordination of the sexes, and one of its most precious gifts the restoration of woman to man, not only as the help most meet for him-not only as his best counsellor and companionbut as his partner in religious privileges, and his equal, if not his superior, in religious capacities. 1 Still more ancient and weighty authorities than the Mahā-bhārata are the Taittiriya-brāhmaṇa III. 3, 3, 1 (see p. 28 of this volume), and Manu IX. 45, 130 (pp. 288, 273 of this volume), which also assert that 'a wife is half of a man's self,' that 'a husband is one person with his wife,' and that a daughter is equal to a son.' The Ardha-nāri form of Siva (see p. 325, note 1) seems to point to the same truth. Modern Religious Sects of the Hindus. Some account of these will be found in p. 127, note 1, and p. 327, note 2 of the present volume. They are fully described by Professor H. H. Wilson in vol. i. of his works edited by Dr. Rost. The three great sects are, 4. The Vaishnavas, who worship Vishnu, as the chief god of the Tri-murti (p. 324). B. The Saivas, who exalt Siva. C. The Sāktus, adorers of the female deity Devi (generally regarded as Siva's wife). Each sect is distinguished by different practices, and sectarian marks on the forehead (called Tilaka). All three are subdivided into numerous sub-sects, each of which again has two classes of persons under it—the clerical or monastic, and the lay. 4. The Vaishnavas have six principal subdivisions, viz. 1. Rāmānujas or Sri-sampradayins, founded by the reformer Rāmānuja, who flourished in the South of India towards the latter part of the twelfth century; they have two perpendicular white lines drawn from the root of the hair to each eyebrow, and a connecting streak across the root of the nose. They draw their doctrines from Vedanta works, the Vishnu and other Purāņas, and are remarkable for the scrupulous preparation and privacy of their meals. A sect called Rāmāvats differ little from them. 2. Rāmānandas, founded by Rāmānanda, disciple of Rāmānuja, and numerous in Gangetic India; they worship Rama-ćandra and Sītā. 3. Followers of Kabir, the most celebrated of the twelve disciples of Ramananda, whose life is related in their favourite book the Bhakta-mālā. He lived about the end of the fourteenth century, and is said to have been a Muslim by birth. The Kabirpathins (or panthis) are found in Upper and Central India; they believe in one God, and do not observe all the Hindu ceremonies, yet pay respect to Vishņu (Rama) as a form of the Supreme Being. 4. Vallabhācāryas or Rudra-sampradayins, founded by Vallabhācārya, who was born in 1479, and had great success in controversies with the Saivas. He left behind 84 disciples. They draw their doctrines from the Bhagavatapurana and works of Vallabha. 5. Mādhvas or Brahma-sampradāyins, founded by Madhvācārya (p. 127, note). They are found especially in the South of India, and although Vaishnavas, exhibit a leaning towards Siva. 6. Vaishnavas of Bengal, founded by Caitanya, regarded as an incarnation of Krishna. They are distinguished by bhakti or devotion to Krishna, whose name they constantly repeat. B. The Saivas are generally distinguished by a horizontal Tilaka mark on the forehead, and by rosaries of Rudraksha berries. The temples dedicated to Siva in his symbol of the Linga (see p. 325, note 1) are numerous, but the doctrines of the great Saiva teachers, such as Sankara (p. 327, note 2), are too austere and philosophical for the mass of the people (p. 326). Earlier subdivisions of Saivas are the Raudras, who have the Tri-sula (p. 325, note 3) marked on their foreheads; the Ugras, who have the Damaru on their arms; the Bhāktas, who have the Lin-ga on their foreheads; the Jangamas, who have that symbol on their heads; and the Pasupatas (p. 127, note), who have it marked on other parts of their bodies. Some more modern subdivisions are, 1. Dandins or mendicant staff-bearers; 2. Daś-nāmī-dandins, divided into ten classes, each bearing a name of one of the ten pupils of the four disciples of Sankara; 3. Yogins (or Jogis), who cultivate absorption into Siva by suppressions of breath, fixing the eyes, and eighty-four postures (see p. 103); 4. Jan-yamas, called Lingavats (commonly Linga-its), as wearing the Linga on their person; 5. Paramahansas, who are solely occupied with meditating on Brahma; 6. Aghorins or Aghora-pathins, who propitiate Siva by terrific and revolting austerities; 7. Urdhva-bāhus, who extend one or both arms over the head and hold them in that position for years; 8. Ākāśa-mukhins, who keep their necks bent back looking up at the sky. The Saivas sometimes carry a staff with a skull at the top, called Khaṭvānga. C. The Saktas have two principal subdivisions, given pp. 502, 503. They aim at acquiring mystical powers by worshipping the Sakti. Of the other sects named in p. 327, note 2, the Ganapatyas and Sauryas can scarcely now be regarded as important. The Bhāgavatas are said to be a division of the Vaishnavas, and advocate faith in Bhagavat or the Supreme Being as the means of beatitude (according to Sandilya, p. 137, 2). They are sometimes called Panća-rātras, as their doctrines are taught in the Narada-pancaratra. A form of Vishnu (Krishna), called Viththal or Vithoba, is the popular god at Pandharpur in Maha-rashtra, and the favourite of the celebrated Marathi poet Tukarama. The followers of Dadū (Dādu-pathins), a famous ascetic who lived at Jaipur about A.D. 1600, are also devoted to Vishnu. With regard to the Sikhs (Sanskrit Sishyah), disciples of Nanak Shah, born near Lahore, A. D. 1469 (p. 327, note 2), this great reformer seems to have owed much to Kabir, who preceded him. Their grantha or sacred books are written in old Pañjābī, and employ a modification of the Nagari character, called Gurumukhi. Their holy city is Umritsur. Mendicant devotees who voluntarily undergo penances and austerities, and are variously called Sannyasis (often of the Saiva sect), Vairāgis (often of the Vaishnava sect), Yogis (or Jogis, see p. 104), Nāgas (for Nagnas, naked devotees), and Fakirs (which last name ought properly to be restricted to Muhammadans), form a large class in India. There is an interesting sect of Syrian Christians in Travancore and Cochin, who have a bishop under the patriarch of Antioch, and trace back their foundation to St. Thomas, about A. D. 50, and to a colony which, 300 years afterwards, immigrated from Syria. |