Before quitting the subject of the Vedanta philosophy it should be stated that in many points the Vedānta agrees with the Sankhya. The order of creation in both is nearly the same, though the Originant' in one case is Prakriti, in the other A-vidya, 'ignorance' (or 'false knowledge'). But even here an attempt is made by some to establish a community of ideas by identifying both Prakriti and A-vidya with Maya or illusion.' In both systems the gross elements proceed from subtile principles, imperceptible to sense, in the same order (see the Sankhyan account of the elements, p. 93). In both there is a subtile as well as a gross body. The nature of the soul in being incapable of cognition without the help of the mind or internal organ (antaḥ-karana) is described in nearly similar language by both. Again, this internal organ (antaḥ-karana) is held by both to stand between the organs of perception and those of action, as an eleventh organ partaking of the nature of each (see p. 94). But while the Sankhya divides the internal organ into Buddhi, 'intellectual perception,' Ahankara, self-consciousness,' and Manas, ‘the reasoning mind,' the first being the great source of the others (see p. 93), the Vedanta propounds a fourth division, viz. Citta or the faculty of thought.' On the other hand, the Vedanta adds two Pramāņas or 'instruments of true knowledge' (An-upalabdhi, non-perception ' or negative proof,' and Arthapatti, inference from circumstances') to the four admitted by the Nyaya (see p. 72), while the Sankhya rejects the Nyaya Upamāna, and retains as its only three Pramanas, Pratyaksha, Anumāna, and Sabda.

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The gross body is sometimes called the nine-gated city of Brahma (Brahma-pura), from its being the abode of the soul and from its having nine openings.

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LECTURE VII.

Irregular Systems and Eclectic School.

EFORE passing to the Eclectic School I must notice briefly two heretical and irregular systems of philosophy, which probably grew out of Buddhism, or at least have much in common with it as well as with the six orthodox systems just described.

These two systems are, 1. that of the Jainas or Jains, 2. that of the Ĉārvākas or Materialists. They are described in the celebrated Madhavacārya's work, called Sarva-darSana-san-graha, which is a concise description of various Hindu systems and sects, religious and philosophical, orthodox and heterodox, even including the science of applying quicksilver (raseśvara, regarded as a form of Śiva) its preparations to various chemical and alchemical operations, and embracing also Panini's theory of grammar 1.

1 Madhava lived in the fourteenth century. He was elder brother of Sāyaṇa, and associated with him in the commentary on the Rig-veda. (By Mr. Burnell, however, in his preface to the Vansa-brāhmaṇa, he is identified with Sayana.) He was also prime minister in the court of Bukka I at Vijaya-nagara. He wrote many works (e. g. an introduction to the Mimānsā philosophy, called Nyāya-mālā-vistara, a commentary on Parasara's lawbook, the Kala-nirnaya, &c.) besides the Sarva-darśana-san-graha, which treats of fifteen systems as follow: 1. Ćārvāka-darśana; 2. Bauddha-d°; 3. Ārhata-d°; 4. Rāmānuja-d°; 5. Pūrṇa-prajña-d°; 6. Nakulīša-pāśupara-d°; 7. Saiva-d°; 8. Pratyabhijñā-d°; 9. Raseśvara-d°; 10. Aulūkyadˇ; 11. Akshapāda-d°; 12. Jaimini-d°; 13. Pāṇini-d°; 14. Sānkhya-ď°; 15. Patanjala-d°. The Vedanta is not included in the list. Rāmānuja, the founder of the fourth, was a Vaishnava Reformer, who, according to H. H. Wilson, lived about the middle of the twelfth century. The fifth is the doctrine of Ananda-tirtha, surnamed Madhvacārya, and also called Madhya-mandira, his epithet Purna-prajna merely meaning one whose knowledge is complete.' The sixth is the system of a branch of the Mahe

Jainism.

Madhava's account of the Jainas or Jains, whom he calls Ārhatas (from arhat, ' venerable,' applied to a Jina or chief saint), comes third in his list of sects, and naturally follows his exposition of the Bauddha doctrines. Jainism is, in fact, the only representative of Buddhistic ideas now left in India, and has so much in common with them that, having already gained some insight into Buddhism, we need only notice a few of the distinctive features of a system which is certainly its near relation, if not its actual descendant'.

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The Jainas, who are still found in great numbers in various parts of India, are divided into two principal sects or parties,-1. the Svetambaras, 'clothed in white garments; 2. the Dig-ambaras, sky-clad' or 'naked 3;' śvaras, as shown by Professor E. B. Cowell (Colebrooke's Essays, I. pp. 431, 434). He conjectures that Siva himself, called Nakulīša, may have been the supposed founder of this sect, and points out that the Pasupatas are worshippers of Siva as Pasu-pati, master of all inferior creatures' (explained by some to mean lord of pasu or the soul entangled in the bonds of matter'). The eighth is like the sixth and that of the Maheśvaras, a form of Saiva doctrine, but more pantheistic, the Saivas maintaining that God is, in creating, Karmāli-sāpeksha, 'dependent on the acts &c. of individual souls,' while this eighth asserts that God's will is the only cause of creation; for it is said, 'He being independent (nir-apekshaḥ) and regarding no face but his own, threw all existences as a reflection on the mirror of himself.' Hence pratyabhijñā is defined as pratimābhimukhyena jiānam, 'recognition as of a visible object or image.' The tenth is the Vaiseshika. See note, p. 76.

1 I have consulted Professor E. B. Cowell's appendix to Colebrooke on the Jainas, H. H. Wilson's essay, an article in Chambers' Cyclopaedia and in the Indian Antiquary' for September 1873, and a dissertation on the Jainas in Tamil by a learned Jain, named Sastram Aiyar, in the Rev. H. Bower's introduction to the Cintamani, Madras, 1868. Professor Kern regards the Jains as having originally formed one sect with the Buddhists.

2 They are most numerous in Gujerat and the west coast, but are found everywhere, especially in South Behar (Magadha), where they originated.

3 Also called Muktāmbaras, Vi-vasanas. A nickname for an ascetic of both sects is Lunéita-kesa, one who tears out his hair.'

the latter, however, wear coloured garments, except while eating, and are required to carry peacocks' tails in their hands. These sects, though their doctrines rest on the same sacred books, called collectively Sūtras', differ in some unimportant matters, such as the clothing or nonclothing of their images, the number of their heavens, &c. They both agree with the Buddhists in rejecting the Veda of the Brahmans. The principal point in the Jaina creed is the reverence paid to holy men, who, by long discipline, have raised themselves to divine perfection. The Jina or conquering saint,' who, having conquered all worldly desires, declares the true knowledge of the Tattvas, is with Jainas what the Buddha or 'perfectly enlightened saint' is with Buddhists. He is also called Jineśvara, 'chief of Jinas;' Arhat, the venerable;' Tirtha-kara or Tirthan-kara, the saint who has made the passage of the world ;' Sarva-jia, ‘omniscient;' Bhagavat, 'holy one.' Time with Jainas proceeds in two eternally recurring cycles or periods of immense duration, defying all human calculation: 1. the Utsarpiņi or 'ascending cycle;' 2. the Avasarpiņī or descending cycle.' Each of these has six stages. Those of the Utsarpiņi period are bad-bad, bad, bad-good, goodbad, good, good-good time. In the Avasarpini period the series begins with good-good and goes regularly backwards. In the first cycle the age and stature of men increases; in the other, decreases. We are now in the fifth stage of the Avasarpiņi, i. e. in 'bad' time. When the two cycles have run out, a Yuga or age' is accomplished. Twenty-four Jinas or perfect saints' raised to the rank of gods have appeared in the present Avasarpiņi cycle, twenty-four in the past Utsarpiņi, and twenty-four will appear in the future. The idols representing them

* See Introduction, p. xxxvi, note 1. They have also Purāņas. The names are all given in the Abhidhāna-cintāmaņi, a well-known vocabulary of synonyms, by a learned Jain, named Hemaéandra, who is

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are always, like that of the Buddha, in a contemplative posture, but have different animals, plants, and symbols accompanying them (such as a bull, elephant, horse, ape, a lotus, the moon), to serve as distinguishing characteristics. The first Jina of the present cycle lived 8,400,000 years, and attained a stature equal to the length of 500 bows (dhanus). The age and stature of the second was somewhat less, and so in a descending scale. The last two Jinas, Pārśva-nātha and Mahā-vīra, were probably real persons and are those principally revered by the Jainas of the present day, the first founder of the sect having been Pārva-nātha, and its first active propagator, Maha-vira. In the same cycle there have lived twelve Ćakra-vartins, 'universal emperors,' nine divine personages called Bala-devas, nine called Vasudevas, and nine others called Prativasudevas, making a list of sixty-three divine persons in all 2.

With regard to the world, the Jainas affirm that, being formed of eternal atoms, it has existed and will exist

said to have lived in the twelfth century of our era. Those of the present cycle are, 1. Rishabha or Vrishabha; 2. Ajita; 3. Sambhava; 4. Abhinandana; 5. Sumati; 6. Padmaprabha; 7. Su-pārsva; 8. Candra-prabha; 9. Pushpa-danta; 10. Sitala; 11. Sreyas or Sreyansa; 12. Vāsupūjya ; 13. Vimala; 14. Ananta; 15. Dharma; 16. Sānti; 17. Kunthu; 18. Ara; 19. Malli; 20. Muni-suvrata or Su-vrata; 21. Nimi; 22. Nemi; 23. Pārsvanatha or Pārsva; 24. Vardhamana or Mahā-vira or Vira. The last of these dwindled to the size of an ordinary man, and only lived forty, while the twenty-third lived a hundred years.

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1 Dr. Muir has kindly allowed me to read his abstract of Professor H. Kern's learned dissertation on the date of Buddha's death and the Asoka inscriptions, written for a forthcoming number of the Indian Antiquary,' whence I gather that, notwithstanding the notable difference between the legends of Sakya-muni and Jina Maha-vira, there are also striking points of resemblance. Maha-vira is said to have been the son of Siddhartha, of the solar race, and to have died in 388 B.C., which is also Dr. Kern's date for the death of the Buddha Sakya-muni.

2 See their names in Hemacandra's third chapter.