EARLY HISTORY OF THE SALT MANUFACTURE.

ter.

BY S. P. HILDRETH, OF MARIETTA, OHIO.

an attempt before; but in this they were agreeably disappointed. In order to ascertain the quality of the water, they had frequently to stop and clear the hole, not only of water but of the borings. At seventeen feet they struck a vein of salt water, the first indication of which was a bubbling or hissing of the

At the first settling of the Kenhawa river, a large buffalo-lick was discovered on the northeast side of the river, about six miles above the mouth of Elk river, and a short distance above the mouth of Camp-gas in the hole. This water, though requiring three bell's creek, near the margin of the river at low wa- hundred gallons to make a bushel of salt, was then Nearly opposite to the lick is a low gap in the thought to be very good. The well was sunk to the ridge, through which the buffalo and deer passed on depth of twenty-six feet, when they left off boring their way to the lick, in such numbers, that their the first of October, 1807, and proceeded to the erecpaths up and down the creek were worn so deep, as tion of a furnace of about forty kettles, which went to be visible at this day. For a considerable dis- into operation the 11th of February, 1808, and made tance round the lick, not only the herbage but the about twenty-five bushels of salt a day, which was foliage of the trees, as high as the animals could then worth two dollars per bushel. A small vein of reach, was all eaten up by the buffaloes, after they fresh water, that came in a few feet below the top of had drank of the salt water. If not disturbed by the well, they contrived to exclude by means of a the hunters, they generally remained here two or wooden tube, pushed down into the well, after reamthree days. At this spot, several hollow logs, or ing it out. From this example has arisen the prac"gums," were found, sunk into the gravel at the mar- tice of pushing down tin or copper tubes, by the gin of the river, and probably placed there by the modern well-borers, to any desirable depth. Not Indians, as they had every mark of great antiquity. long after this, William Whitaker obtained salt waIn the same manner, the early settlers sunk gums ter, and erected a furnace on the opposite side of into the bed of the river, six or eight feet deep, in the river; and about the same time a well was bored which was collected a very weak water, and from it and a furnace erected at the old lick, and several they made a little salt for their own use. In the improvements made, both above and below this spot. year 1794, Joseph Ruffner, of Shenandoah county, The salt water in the gums, at this early day, usualVa., bought a tract of five hundred and two acres, ly rose about a foot above the surface of the river at including the buffalo-lick; and in 1795, he moved low stages-at high stages, the water rose with that his family on to the Kenhawa. But little was done of the river, but not quite so high as it was in the towards making salt, until the year 1807, when Da-river. vid and Joseph Ruffner, sons of Joseph, bought a tract of land a little above the buffalo-lick, and commenced their operations about one hundred yards above the lick, where there was no appearance of salt water. Having selected a gum or hollow sycamore trunk, about eighteen feet long, and three feet across the cavity, they, with great labour and difficulty, sunk it in the gravel and sand, at the margin of the river, to the depth of fourteen feet, down to the smooth sandstone rock which forms the bed of the river, and is very uniformly found at this depth, up and down the river, as far as any gums have been sunk. The depth of the river, for ten miles above Elk, is uniformly about sixteen feet, and two hundred and fifty yards wide at low-water mark; by which it appears that little if any deposite is made in its bed by the floods from year to year. The lower part of the gravel through which the gum was sunk, for four or five feet, is very hard and tenacious, approaching that state when gravel-beds change into rock. When the gum was fairly settled on the rock, their next attempt was to sink a well or shaft into the rock, of sufficient depth to afford a supply of water, but in this they were foiled, as they could devise no means by which to keep out the water from the river so as to go on with their work. At length, by putting a tight bottom of planks into the gum, and, through a hole in the bottom, inserting a tube three inches in diameter, into the rock below, no water could enter but what passed through the tube. Here the process of boring was commenced, by an auger or chisel, passed through the tube, which bored a hole two and a half inches in diameter, the auger and rod, or pole, being fastened by a rope to a sweep-pole." When they commenced, they little expected to obtain a supply of water by merely boring a hole in the rock, having never heard of such

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The salt water was also increased in strength as well as in quantity by a rise in the river. When the wells were only twenty-six feet deep, they afforded water only for two furnaces; but when, in the second year, they were deepened to sixty and ninety feet, the water was sufficient to supply four furnaces of sixty kettles, holding thirty or forty gallons each, making from fifty to sixty bushels of salt every twenty-four hours. To prevent the river, when high, from flowing into the gum, an additional one of eight or ten feet was set upon its top, and the water drawn out of it with a bucket and sweep by the hand. Soon after pumps were used, worked by horses, one set of pumps raising sufficient to supply two furnaces, which was the usual number attached to each well. The furnaces were about fifty or sixty feet in length, with the same number of kettles set in two rows. The fuel then used was wood. Successive improvements continued to be made, both in the form of the furnaces and in the size and shape of the kettles, until the latter reached the capacity of one hundred and fifty or two hundred gallons each, weighing from seventeen to nineteen hundred pounds, and requiring only five or six for a furnace. These large kettles were used only for boilers, the smaller ones still being continued for "graining" or crystalizing the salt. After coal came into use for fuel, which was not until the adjacent hills were stripped of their wood, in the year 1819, broad pans of sheetiron were used for boilers. Colonel David Ruffner first introduced the use of coal, and his example was soon followed by the other manufacturers, who at that time had become numerous. He suffered considerable loss, and many disappointments, before he could adapt the form of the furnace and the pans to this new fuel. The pans were twelve or fourteen feet long, and three feet eight inches wide, and were placed in the front part of the furnace over the fire,

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Phenomena of the Atmosphere.

There are two kinds of mists, dry and wet.

for boilers. These being so corroded and worn out, cast-iron pans were substituted, made of separate pieces and fastened together with screws, the joints being tightened with a cement of cast-iron borings.. With care, these pans lasted a long time. The pans used at the present period are about twenty-five feet Dry fogs, according to some philosophers, are inti long, and six and a half feet wide, and the length of mately connected with volcanick eruptions. A mist the furnace from eighty to one hundred feet. The of this kind enveloped all Europe in 1783, at the quantity of salt made at the time when they began moment when the volcanick fire made Iceland trem

to use the stone-coal furnaces was from two hun

earthy particles.

in clear nights, from 7° to 120 below that of the atmosphere, a few feet above the surface. The air in contact with the surface, is, of course, cooled down to it, and deposites its moisture. Dews are always heaviest in clear still nights, ciouds acting as a

dred and fifty to three hundred bushels per week. ble, and immediately after the disaster of CalaAs the furnaces were enlarged, and improved in bria, so familiar to all. A similar fog overspread their structure and management, the quantity in- the Tyrol and Switzerland, just before the earthquake creased, until, at the present time, they make in some at Lisbon, in 1755; it appeared composed of fine instances, nine hundred or a thousand bushels per week. The salt-water, as it comes from the wells, is very clear, and of the temperature of the coldest Dew is supposed to be the result of radiation from spring-water. When it becomes even moderately the earth's surface into the higher regions of the atwarm, it begins to turn red, and when saturated by mosphere, by which the heat of the surface is found, boiling, it is nearly the colour of blood. In this state, it is drawn off into a large trough, called "the brine-trough," placed near the furnace, for the purpose of settling or clarifying. When cool it becomes perfectly clear and is then returned into the grainers, where it is boiled down into salt, and lifted out upon a platform, for the purpose of draining off the "bitter-water," or muriate of lime, a very abundant screen to prevent radiation, and winds bringing a and troublesome component in all the western sa- constant supply of warmer particles. Dew is delines. In the course of eight or ten days, a red sed-posited abundantly in hot countries, where it is often iment, two or three inches in thickness, resembling a substitute for rain. In many places, however, it red paint, forms in the bottom of the "brine-trough." is hurtful both to man, and to the growth of plants. It is composed principally of a carbonate of iron, held in solution by the carbonick acid gas of the Hoar-frost is dew frozen. Rain, snow, and hail, water, and set free on the application of heat. At are familiar to all; and the nature and causes of this period, a large portion of the furnaces have a each we have heretofore described. There are some small steam-engine attached for the purpose of rais- atmospherical phenomena which were once considing water, which contains more salt the nearer they ered as miraculous. Showers of blood, so called, approach to the bottoms of the wells. The average quantity required to make a bushel of salt, is about amongst the number, take place when the rainseventy gallons. The total amount made in the year water draws with it a great number of certain red 1824, is estimated by the inspector at one million insects, which float in the atmosphere, or swarm on and a half of bushels-a very great distance from the earth. Water-spouts, volcanick eruptions, or the year 1807. Within a few years, the manufacture of coarse winds, have sometimes filled the atmosphere in cersalt has been commenced, and large quantities are tain sections, with a vegetable powder or yellow produced, equal in quality to the best Turk's island dust, which being precipitated to the earth by rain, salt. After the water is evaporated to the state of has given rise to the assertion, that showers of sula strong brine and purified, it is drawn off into a long shallow vat, or cistern, and kept at a moderate temperature by the aid of steam, furnished by the boilers, and conducted the whole length of the cistern in a metallick or a wooden pipe. The salt is deposited slowly on the bottom of the vat, in beautiful, four-sided pyramidal crystals, of great purity. It is removed once in eight days, and is then usually about a foot deep all over the floor of the vat; some vats are several hundred feet in length, and ten or twelve feet in width.

The Kenhawa salines present a most interesting and lively scene of activity and business. At intervals of every quarter of a mile, both shores of the river are lined with furnaces, sending forth dense curling volumes of coal smoke. The busy hum of voices, and the rattling of the "train-wagons," along the rail-ways, with the bustle of the salt-boats, and steam-boats, to which the depth of the river affords a safe and pleasant navigation to the upper furnaces, give to this spot all the life and activity of a large city.

phur have actually occurred. Snow and rain, not unfrequently fall, charged with electricity; and the sparkling, on touching the ground, has led many to believe that the phenomenon was a shower of fire Parhelions and rainbows, both atmospherical phenomena, we have before described.

Many travellers, when standing upon very elevated mountains, have observed their own image reflected centrick circles, adorned with the colours of the in very light fogs, and surrounded by several conrainbow. These are called the apotheoses of travellers.

"The Mirage,' or appearance of objects which are not actually in the horizon, or which exist there in a different situation, is one of the most remarkable of optical illusions. At sea, rocks and sands, concealed under the water, appear as if they were

raised above the surface. The Swedish sailors | moves in the air. This phenomenon was observed long searched for a pretended magick island, which, by the ancients. When the fires were seen in pairs, from time to time could be descried upon the isles they were called Castor and Pollux; when the of Aland and the coasts of Upland. It was a rock flame was single it bore the name of Helen. The elevated by the mirage. At times, the English have spears of an army, according to Homer and Virgil, seen with terrour the coasts of Calais and Bologne often appeared ornamented with these electrical apparently approaching the shores of their island. plumes. Forskal, a Swedish naturalist, travelling Vessels sometimes present themselves to the view on horseback in snowy weather, saw his fingers, his as if they were upset, or as if sailing in the clouds. switch, and the ears of his horse, covered with a fire The most celebrated example of this phenomena, is of this description. that which is frequently seen in the straits of Messi- Globes of fire, sometimes of a red light, but oftenna, and which the people attribute to the fairy Mor-er of a vivid whiteness, have been observed to shoot gana, Fata Morgana. The spectator, standing on through the atmosphere with the rapidity of lightthe Italian coast, perceives, upon an inclined plane, ning. They sometimes appear, traverse the horiformed by the waves driven towards the middle of zon, blaze for a few seconds, then break in pieces the strait, images of palaces, embattled ramparts, or discharge torrents of flame, with a tremendous houses and ships, at one time turned upside down, detonation. They not unfrequently occasion great at another, confusedly set up again, and presenting damage to houses as well as forests. Electricity the spectacle of towns and landscapes in the air. and hydrogen are supposed to act an important part Of all the effects arising from this cause, that which in these phenomena; but the true cause is merely has been most thoroughly examined, is the optical conjectural. The stones which are sometimes disillusion which the French experienced in the deserts in the vicinity of Egypt; the sandy plain, covered in the distance by a thick vapour, presented the deceptive image of a vast lake, towards which they eagerly hastened, but which appeared to fly before them." A most imposing and brilliant phenomenon occurThe zodiacal light, electricity, meteors, and the red in November, 1833, which has received the appelaurora borealis, are frequent and familiar occurren-lation of the meteorick shower. It was observed in alces in the atmosphere, to which we have given our most every part of the continent, and will probably be separate attention in other places. recollected by every one of our readers. As a sim

covered, are supposed to be the nuclei of the fire, but whence they are derived cannot be ascertained. The shooting stars which sometimes fall to the earth, are supposed to be the effect of hydrogen gas more or less sulphuretted.

Animal substances, in a state of putrefaction, al-ilar phenomenon occurred the next year, it was im-, ways emit phosphorus, which, taking fire from the agined by some, that the meteors were derived from contact of the atmosphere, produces light and the extreme portions of a nebulous body, which rewandering flames. Such is probably the origin of volves round the sun. This hypothesis led to the those ignes fatui, that flutter at night over church- supposition that the same phenomenon occurred anyards and marsh-fields, so much to the excitement nually. It does not, however, seem to have been and disturbance of superstitious fears, arising, how-supported by the fact, inasmuch as the occurrence ever, from the development of phosphoretted hy- was not observed last year. There is but little drogen; they are necessarily soon extinguished; a doubt, however, that the phenomenon took place besuccession of these fires will therefore appear one yond the atmosphere of the earth. single flame, which moves rapidly from place to place, when we attempt to approach it. The air driven on before us, forces the flame to recede.

A fire of this kind, which was immoveable, once occurred in Sweden. The superstitious supposed it to issue from the mouth of a dragon that kept watch over some hidden treasure. A miner, however, ventured to sink a shaft, which discovered a cavern filled with sulphurous pyrites and petroleum, the combustion of which had occasioned the phenom

enon.

There are hundreds of atmospherick phenomena continually occurring, which serve, however, on the one hand, but to remind us of the confined limits of our own comprehension, and on the other, to astonish us as the manifestations of the Almighty Omniscience.

We shall next speak of physical climates.

He that has energy enough in his constitution to root out a vice, should go a little farther, and try to That fire which sailors frequently observe at the plant a virtue in its place, otherwise he will have his labour to renew. A strong soil that has produced top of their masts, and is sometimes called the fire weeds, may be made to produce wheat, with far of Saint Elmo, is generally considered as an accu- less difficulty than it would cost to make it produce mulation of electrick matter around a point which | nothing.

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The acer genus of plants, includes about thirty- though, it is not remarkable for durability and strength. four species, of which the common name is maple. The variety called bird's-eye and curled-maple, is Eleven of these species belong to North America, held in great esteem. It is capable of being highly twelve to Europe, six of great beauty to Japan, and polished, and is frequently employed with good efthe rest to different parts of Asia. The species com- fect in inlaying. It is also considerably used in the monly known in North America, are the red or soft- manufacture of chairs and other pieces of furniture; maple, the white or silver-maple, hairy-maple, the fowling-pieces, musical instruments, ornamental sugar-rock or hard-maple, the sweet-tree or black-work-boxes, &c. Indeed, the maple is not surpassed maple, the striped-maple, also called false dogwood by many trees in the variety of purposes in which it and moosewood, the mountain-maple bush, the ash- may be usefully employed. The sugar-maple is maple, or box-elder, and some southern varieties. found on this continent, principally between the 42d Two only of the whole (acer saccharinum, the sugar- and 48th parallels of latitude. It is abundant in maple, and acer nigrum the sweet-tree or black-ma- New England, New York, the north of Pennsylvania, ple) produce sap, from which good sugar may be ob- the Canadas, and the northwestern states and tertained. The timber, however, is of beautiful texture, ritories. The black-maple flourishes in more southand peculiarly adapted for ornamental purposes. Iern and warmer climates, and is found on the banks

of the Ohio and Mississippi, and in nearly all the when the sugar season arrives they are always southern and western states and territories.

ready.

Were it practicable, maple sugar could doubtless One or two of the tubs or troughs being placed at be manufactured in this country, in sufficient quan- each tree, a small sloping incision, about two or tities to supply the consumption of the United States. three inches long and half an inch deep, is made into But so long as brown sugar, the common sugar of the tree, the under side of the cut being sloping, so commerce, can be produced with so much facility that the sap may run down to its lowest point: if and cheapness, it can never he practicable or eco-the tree be fit to tap, the sap oozes from the cut nomical to manufacture maple sugar for general con- immediately. About an inch below the cut, the gouge sumption. Indeed, it cannot now be manufactured, is driven in, and the spout inserted, through which unless as an article of luxury, or in some remote parts of the country where labour is cheap, and fuel abundant, with any view to economy. As society advances, it is obvious that the practicability of manufacturing it will grow less and less, and soon its manufacture will become totally impracticable, un-rally answers for the season, and the trees, if not less as an article of luxury. hacked too much, may be tapped for several years in succession.

In very many parts of the northern states, there are fine maple orchards, and quite extensive sugaries. Many persons manufacture the sugar for the use of their families, and the surplus over a year's supply, is sent to market. The Indians also make considerable quantities, and carry it to market in little baskets made of birch-bark, fancifully wrought with porcupine-quills of various colours. In the country, it is to be bought frequently as low as six cents per pound; but the price in the city varies from twelve to twenty-five cents. Maple molasses is seldom found in market.

The sugar season commences usually about the middle of March, though not unfrequently a favourable time arrives towards the latter part of February. It should be commenced before the frost is out of the ground, or at least, before the sap begins to return to the branches and buds, for the development of the leaves. The most favourable season is when the nights are frosty, and the day moderately warm, with sun just sufficient to thaw the sap.

the sap is conveyed to the tub. If an auger be used, no incision is made with the axe, and a spout, round at the upper end, and a hole through the centre, is driven in. One man may tap two hundred trees or more in a day. One tapping gene

The sap is collected daily, sometimes twice a day, in pails, and carried to the boiling-place and put into barrels, a cistern, or some other large vessel or vesOne tree will furnish six, twelve, and somesels. times twenty-four quarts in a day. The sugar is produced by "boiling down" the sap. For that purpose, two stout crotches are fixed upright in the ground, eight or ten feet apart, and on them is placed a cross-stick from which pots or kettles are hung; a hook to hang them by being made of a small crooked branch of wood. Two large logs are rolled up on each side, and the fire is made underneath the kettles of split or small wood. There is usually one large kettle, which is supplied as the sap boils away from the smaller ones, so that it is kept constantly boiling, while the smaller ones are supplied with fresh sap. The kettles are thus kept boiling, till the contents of the larger one, arrive at the consistency of a thick sirup or molasses. The sirup is then taken out and strained into a barrel. Eggs, milk, or something else, is afterwards thrown in, to precipitate all its impurities to the bottom. It is then strained again, and put back into the kettle to be "sugared off." A piece of pork or butter is thrown in to keep it from boiling over. When it reaches that state, in which it candies, by pouring it on the snow, it is quite delicious to the palate. It is at this stage of the process, that gentlemen and ladies, who frequently happen in at the "sugaring off," enjoy themselves most. finished, and that is known by its "graining," it is poured into a barrel or other vessel provided for the purpose. To produce a fine grain it is stirred with a stick or ladle. Unless stirred in this manner the grain is quite coarse, and, indeed, the whole bemay To make a dry article, come a solid cake or mass.

The first thing necessary to be done when the season arrives, is to prepare the spouts, and troughs or tubs. The first may be split from a block of pine or white wood with a gouge, so that they may be gouge-shaped at one end, in case a gouge is to be used in tapping, or they may be made of elder or any other pithy wood, if the trees are to be bored. It is possible that more sap may be obtained by cutting a notch in the tree with an axe, and inserting a gouge below it, than by boring into the tree with an auger; though the tree is not so much injured by the latter course as by the former. The vessels employed for catching the sap may be either small tubs or pails, or troughs hewn out of small pine or basswood timber. One man, with an axe and addice, may make two dozen troughs in a day. At old sugaries, however, the tubs and spouts are usually carefully a hole may be bored in the bottom of the vessel, and housed and preserved from year to year, so that the molasses thus drained off. Several hundred

When it is