§ 88. stem-terminations, although expressing masculine relations, as colleg-a beside sacri-leg-o- (sacrilegus), √leg; trans-fug-a beside pro-fug-o (profugus), √fug; parri-cid-a, √caed; ad-wen-a, √uen; indi-gen-a-, √gen; agri-col-a, √col, etc. In Gk. a perfectly corresponding formation is e.g. cúpú-оπ-α. Feminines of this sort are mol-a (mill), mol (molere grind); tog-a (upper garment),

$88 a.

√teg (tegere cover), etc.

As a secondary suffix -a- occurs, mostly accompanied by step-formation of the stem-vowel, e.g. Sanskrit stem ayasá(adj. iron), stem áyas- (iron); çaivá- (masc. Çiva-worshipper), stem civa, (nom. propr. of the god); the secondary suffix -abecomes amalgamated with final a when the underlying stem ends in a, so that practically no fresh suffix is here added; dāuhitrá- (masc. daughter's-son), stem duhitár- (daughter); mānavá- (masc. man), stem manú- (masc. prop. noun of the primeval man), etc.

Greek. e.g. in yeμóvn (leader fem.), stem ýyeμóv- (masc. ἡγεμών leader); ὄ-πατρο- (having same father), stem πατέρ-; here, as often, shortened to Tатρ- before suffix -o-; άσT-ó- (masc. ἀστ-όcitizen, burgher), ao-Tu (city), which has lost its termination before suffix -a-, etc.

Latin. Here belong cases like decōro- (decoru-s graceful, decent, adj.) fr. decus, gen. decor-is (ornament, dignity); honōro(honourable) fr. honōs, gen. honōr-is (honour), and their like. III. Stems with suffix -i-. Suffix -- is on the whole rare. capable of proof, vak (be sharp, see; cf. Joh. Schmidt, d. wurzel AK, Weimar, 1865, p. 38); agh-i- (snake; cf. Sk. áh-i, Zend, až-i-, Gk. ëx-ı-, Lat. angu-i-, Lith. ang-ì-), √agh.

In Indo-Eur. ak-i- (eye) is

Sanskrit. Nomina actionis and agentis, without, and more rarely with step-formation, also with weakening of root-vowel, e.g. kŕš-i- (fem. ploughing), √karš (plough); sák-i- (fem. friendship), √sak (follow); lip-i- (fem. writing), √lip (smear); yáģ-i(masc. sacrificer), yag (sacrifice); khid-i- (fem. axe), khid

(split); çúk-í (adj. pure), √ çuk (shine); bódh-i- (adj. wise), §88a. √budh (know); gir-i (masc. mountain), √gar (be heavy), etc.; with reduplicated root, e.g. ģá-gm-i- (going, hastening), √ gam (go); ga-ghn-i- (striking, slaying), √han, i.e. ghan (slay); sā-sah-í(bearing), √sah (bear), etc.

Greek. e.g. *ox-- (ntr. eye); retained in dual oσσe=*ỏкye, *okie), √ origl. ak (be sharp, see); πóλ-ɩ- (fem. city), origl. √par (fill, be full); Tρóx-- (masc. runner), √τрEX (Tрéx-w I run), etc.

Latin. scob-i (scobis, scobs, fem. sawdust, shavings), √scab (scabo scrape); trud-i- (trudis fem. punting-pole), √trud (trūdo push); ou-i- (ouis fem. sheep, cf. ŏF-i-s, Sk. áv-i-s, Lith. av-i-s) fr. a vu, av (perhaps in sense of 'clothe,' in which it appears in Lat. and Sclavonic), etc.

IV. Stems with suffix -u-.

$88 b. This suffix, though not very common, is yet on the whole commoner than -i- ; in some languages it is much used, in others but little.

Indo-Eur. origl.-lang. āk-u- (adj. swift), vak (be sharp, swift); prat-u- (adj. broad), √ prat; par-u- (adj. full), √ par (fill); svād-u- (sweet), √svad; ragh-u- (light), √ragh; pak-u(cattle), pah (perhaps 'bind').

Sanskrit. The suffix -u- occurs very often, mostly in formation of adjectives, e.g. aç-ú- (swift), ✔aç (reach), origl. ak; prath-úusually prth-ú- (broad), √prath (extend oneself, spread); pur-ú (much) for *par-u-, √ par (fill; 1 sg. pres. pi-par-mi); svād-ú(sweet), √svad (taste, smack); mrd-ú- (soft), √ mard (crush), etc. Similar adjectives from stems of desiderative verbs are especially common (§ 83), e.g. didŕkš-u- (wishing to see), cf. didrkša-tē (wishes to see), √darç (see), origl. dark; dits-ú- (wishing to give), cf. ditsa-ti for *di-da-sa-ti (wishes to give), vda, etc. Substantives: e.g. bándh-u- (masc. relative), √bandh (bind); bhid-ú- (masc. thunderbolt), bhid (split); tan-ú- (fem. body), √tan (stretch), etc.

Greek. ὠκού- (swift) = Sk. aç-u-, origl. Vak; πλατύ

§88 b. (broad)=Sk. prth-ú-, origl. √prat; πoλ-ú- (much)=Sk. pur-ú-, origl. par-u-, √par; ¿d-ú-=Sk. svād-ú-, √svad; Bap-ú- (heavy) =Sk. gur-ú- for *gar-u-, origl. ✔gar (be heavy); véк-v- (masc. corpse) = Zend naç-u-, origl. √nak (die); Opao-ú- (daring), √lapo, Opas (be bold; cf. Oápo-os boldness), etc.

§ 89.

Latin. These stems have generally been completely shifted to the analogy of the i-declension, by an i having simply been added to the originally final u- e.g. tenu-i- (tenuis thin) from *ten-u-, f.f. tan-u-, origl. √tan (stretch); breu-i- (short) for *bregu-i- (§ 73, 1) from *breg-u-, cf. Gk. Bpax-ú-, root not otherwise traced; leu-i (light) for *legu-i- from *leg-u-=Gk. ¿-λax-ú-, Sk. lagh-ú-, origl. √ragh (cf. Sk. √langh spring, despise; râh haste), grau-i- (heavy) prob. for *garu-i- from *gar-u-, Gk. Bap-ú-, Sk. gur-ú-, origl. gar-u-; suau-i- (sweet) for *suādu-i-, from *suād-u-, cf. Gk. ¿d-ú-, Sk. and origl. svād-ú-. The uform has been retained in ac-u- (acus fem. needle), origl. ✔ak (be sharp); id-u- (fem. the 13th or 15th day of the month), probably from origl. √idh (burn, in sense of 'be bright,' thus lit. 'full-moon') and other stems of somewhat obscure derivation.

V. Stems with suffix -ya-.

This suffix is very common; it occurs in all Indo-European languages. In Sanskrit by means of it the participium necessitatis is formed.

Like most stem-formative suffixes of Indo-European, the common primary and secondary relative suffix -ya- appears in several functions (cf. pronominal-root ya with demonstr. and relative function, e.g. in nom. sg. masc. Sk. ya-s qui, Lith. ji-s ille, is). Indeed the stem-formative elements of the more simply organized languages are applied in more ways than one; as also are the auxiliary roots which are loosely added to the end of the meaning-sounds (simple roots) of monosyllabic languages. The suffix -ya- has, of course, belonged, even in early times, to the Indo-European.

In Sk. this suffix forms regularly a participle of necessity; § 89. a function of which traces only are found in the other languages. It is a frequent phenomenon to find a certain suffix developing itself in a particular language, so as to become a regular kind of formation, with a peculiar function, whilst in the kindred languages it is otherwise employed; thus e.g. -yaas the formation of the passive in Sk.; the nasalized presentstems in Sclavonian, Lith., and Gothic as intransitives and passives; -la-, origl. -ra-, as past part. act. in Sclav., etc. 1. -ya- as a primary suffix.

Indo-European original language.

It is hard to find examples which can with certainty be traced to the origl. lang. A perfectly trustworthy example of this suffix -ya- would be seen in madh-ya-, if it were certain that madh is the root of Sk. mádh-ya-=Gk. μéoσo- for *μe0-yo-, Lat. med-io-, Goth. mid-ja-. If we may venture to draw an inference for the origl. lang. from the correspondence of Greek and Sanskrit, we may ascribe to it yag-ya- also (to be revered, holy), √yag (revere).

This sf. is common in verb-stems, as e.g. in stems of derived verbs (§ 84) ending in -a-ya-, e.g. bhāra-ya-, √bhar; here belong all optative-stems in -ya- (mostly raised a step to -yā-), e.g. stem as-ya- (§ 162), root and pres.-stem as; moreover many present-stems (§ 165 V.), as e.g. svid-ya-, √svid.

Sanskrit. The function of this sf. -ya- as a primary sf. is by no means exclusively that of a part. necessitatis, cf. e.g. vid-yá (fem. knowledge), vvid (know); vāk-yà- (ntr. speech), √vak; etc. As a rule 1st step-formation of root-vowel occurs before this sf. when it forms a part. necessitatis, e.g. ké-ya-, √ki (gather); yōg-yd and yōģ-yà, √yuģ (iungere); pāk-yà- and pāk-yà-, √pak (cook); hār-yà-, √har (take); garģ-yà-, √garģ (roar), etc.; but vŕdh-ya-, √vardh (wax); gúh-ya- and góh-ya-, √guh (hide), etc. Instead of the regular contraction to ē, ō, occurs, in many roots in -i, and in all roots in -u, an unusual

there

§ 89. loosening of ai, au, into ay, av; e.g. ģáy-ya-, √ģi (conquer); kšáy-ya-, kši (destroy) and stáv-ya-, stáv-ya- (2nd step), √stu (praise). For details of this formation see special Sk. gramm.

Stems of derived-verbs in -aya- only show the root-vowel raised before sf. -ya-, while the sf. of the verb-stem disappears, e.g. kōr-ya- fr. verb-stem kōraya- (steal), etc.

Greek possesses no regular participle in -ya-; -ya- as a primary suffix, not uncommonly in the same function as in Sk., nevertheless occurs in cases like ay-to- (holy), f.f. yag-ya-, cf. Sk. yāģ-yd- (uenerandus), √yag (worship); σTúy-10- (detestable), ν στυγ (ἔ-στυγ-ον I detested); πάγ-ιο- (frm), ν παγ (πήγνυμι fasten; άy-os, masc. thing fixed, hill, frost); ¿peíπ-10- (ntr. ruins), γέριπ (in ἐρείπ-ω, ἐρ-έριπ-το destroy); γλῶσσα (tongue) for *γλωχ-να- (§ 68, 1, e, β), cf. γλωχίν, gen. γλωχίνος (point), μoîpa=*μop-ya (§ 26, 3; part, share), √mar, cf. μép-os (part); öσσa (voice), i.e. *Foк-ya (§ 68, e) origl. √vak, etc.

Latin likewise has no regular participle in -ya-. The suffix appears often primarily, e.g. in ad-ag-io- (adagium proverb), vag (say, cf. aio for *ag-io; § 39); ex-im-io- (eximius excelling), √em, im (ex-im-o pick out); gen-io- (genius), in-gen-io- (ingenium), pro-gen-ie- (progenies offspring), √gen (gen-us, gi-g(e)no-); in-ed-ia (fasting), √ed (ed-o); per-nic-ie- (destruction), √nec (nec-are, noc-ere); fluu-io- (river), √flu (flu-o); con-iug-io (coniugium wedlock), √iug (iung-o, iug-um); ob-sequ-io- (obsequium obedience), √sec, sequ (sequ-or); od-io- (odium hatred), √od (ōd-i); sacri-fic-io- (sacrificium sacrifice), fac; ob-sid-io(obsidium siege); in-sid-ia (insidiae ambush), √sed (sed-eo), etc. These formations are sometimes hard to distinguish from secondary ones, e.g. con-iug-io-, which has to be traced back to the noun con-iug- (n. sg. con-iux spouse), rather than to √iug.

The suffix -iō-ni-, -iō-n- is probably a further formation made by means of sf. -ni-, e.g. leg-iōn-, leg-iōni-, fr. √leg (legere); reg-iōn-, reg-iōni- (direction, region), √reg (reg-ere make straight); ob-sid-iōn-, ob-sid-iōni-, beside the above-mentioned