2. Noun-stems which are most closely connected with verb-stems § 87. (participles and infinitives) and also certain other noun-stems.

I. The root without suffix is also a noun-stem. This formation occurs in Aryograecoïtalic only; it is foreign to Sclavoteutonic.

Indo-European original-language. To the IndoEur. origl. lang. have most likely to be ascribed such root-forms as e.g. bhar (bear), vid (see), yudh (fight), etc., in the functions of nomina actionis and nomina agentis. As verb-stems they occur in the simple aorist (§ 164), e.g. da-; in pres. (§ 165), e.g. as- (I. a), ai- and i- (II. a). Reduplicated root without sff. is either perfect-stem (§ 163), e.g. vi-vid-, da-da-; or pres.-stem as dha-dha-, da-da- (III.), or aorist-stem (§ 164).

Sanskrit. The root appears not unfrequently as a nomen actionis and nomen agentis, e.g. in infinitives, as drç- (dat. drç-é to see), sad- (dat. ā-sád-ē to seat oneself), kram- (dat. ati-krám-ē transgress); ya- (dat. ā-yái fr.*ã-ya-ai come); rabh-(acc. rábh-am desire, do); idh- (acc. sam-idh-am kindle), etc. Similar roots, acting as verb-stems likewise, are also used in ordinary Sk. as nomina actionis, e.g. yudh- (fem. battle), sam-pád- (fem. happiness; sam- with, pad go); roots with a also raise it to ā, e.g. vāk (speech), √vak (speak). At the end of compounds such stems as coincide in form with roots and primary verb-stems are often found used as nomina agentis, e.g. dharma-vid- (knowing one's duty), etc. Roots in a lose it before most cases, or raise it to ā, e.g. viçva-p- (loc. viçva-p-i) and viçva-pā- (e.g. instr. pl. viçva-pā-bhis), f.f. of stem viçva-pa- (all-protecting), √ pa (protect).

The pure root-forms appear more rarely in this function without composition, e.g. drç- (eye, i.e. seeing), vdrç (see); viç- (masc. cultivator, husbandman, man), √viç (enter, settle, cf. vēç-a- masc., vēç-man- ntr. house); div-, dyu- (m. f. heaven) with different scale-steps, e.g. div-í, dyáv-i loc. sg., dyāu-s n. sg., √ div (shine);

§ 87. mah- (great), √ mah (mãh wax). Reduplicated roots without sf. are seen in Vēd. infinitive-stems such as çiçrath- (dat. çiçrath-e), cf. reduplicated pres.-stem çiçrath-, √çrath (loosen).

In the stems vak-š- (dat. vak-š-ē), √ vah (uehere); ģē-s(dat. ģē-š-ē) and ģi-s- (dat. ģi-š-e), √ ģi (conquer); stu-s- (dat. stu-š-ē), √stu (praise) aorist-stems in s have been rightly detected (Benfey, kurze Sanskritgrammatik, p. 236, § 402, 2)— partly, indeed, non-existent in these forms, but yet possible; cf. e.g. *á-stu-s-ma 1 pl. act. etc. The s is a relic of vas (be, v. post. § 169) added to the root. We adduce here certain other similar infinitive-stems formed from tense-stems, belonging to the more archaic (Vēdic) language, although they partly retain suffixes or their remains; thus vyathíšya- (dat. vyathišyāi) like fut. stem vyathišya-, √vyath (be vexed, afraid); here -ya- is a suffix (v. post. § 170, Future Tense); muńk- (acc. muńk-am), whose n comes from pres. stem munka- (e.g. 3 sg. muńká-ti), √muk (loose, free).

Greek. The root appears as a noun in cases like Foπ- (n. sg. of voice) = origl. vāk-, Sk. and Zend vāk-, √Ƒeπ, origl. vak (speak); φλογ- (n. sg. φλόξ fame), ν φλεγ φλέγειν blaze); Zev- =*Ayev-, A4ɩF- (pr. n. of a god, origl. heaven; n. Zeú-s, gen. 4ɩF-ós), root origl. div, dyu (shine), cf. Sk. dyāu-, div-, etc. This happens more often at the end of compounds, as Xép-viß(n. sg. Xépvi↓ water for handwashing), √vß, origl. nig (víčw, νίπτω wash); πρόσφυγ- (n. sg. πρόσ-φυξ fugitive), να φυγ (φεύγω fee); ψευσί-στυγ- (n. ψευσί-στυξ lie-hating), στυγ(OTVY-ÉW, ě-OTVY-ov hate); dí-Gvy- (dí-çuğ double-yoked), √ Svy (ζεύγνυμι I yoke, ζυγ-όν yoke); ἀπο-ῤῥώγ- (n. sg. ἀπο-ῤῥώξ for *ἀπο-Γρωγ-s fragment), V Fραγ (break; cf. ῥήγνυμι, ἔ-ῤῥωγ-α),

etc.

Further, we might here adduce the infinitives of the compound aorist, as e.g. Xûoai, λéğai, which should probably be taken as locatives of stems λῦσα-, λέξα-, i.e.*λεγ-σα- (cf. χαμαί, stem χαμα-, and infin. in -μévai, § 91, and in -évai, § 93, a), scarcely as datives

of stems Av-σ-, Me§-, i.e. *λey-s- (cf. Sk.); in any case however § 87. they contain the stem of the aorist compounded with origl. vas (be), (e.g. ëλv-oa, ë-λe§a, i.e. *¿-λey-σa) as the stem of a nomen actionis which is unused except in this particular case.

Latin. Stems like nec- (nex murder), √nec; duc- (dux leader), √duc; with step-formation lēg- (lex law), √leg; pāc- (pax peace), √pac; luc-, old Lat. louc- (lux light), √/luc, origl. ruk; uōc- (uox voice), √uoc; rēg- (rex king), √reg. Further, stems used at the end of compounds, e.g. iu-dic- (iudex judge), √ dic; con-iug(coniux mate), √iug; prae-sid- (praeses president), √sed (sed-eo); tubi-cin (tubicen trumpeter), can (can-o); arti-fic- (artifex skilled workman),

fac [on weakening of a to i v. § 32, 2; on

e interchanged with i v. § 38], and others show the root as a

noun-stem.

II. Stems with suffix -a-.

This is one of the commonest formations; before the sf. -athe root is sometimes raised, sometimes unraised.

Indo-European original-language. Already plenty of stems in -a- were existent, as yug-a-, cf. Sk. yug-a-, Gothic yuk, etc., √yug; vid-a-, cf. Lat. vid-o-, e.g. pro-uidu-s; bhag-a(god), cf. Sk. bhaga-, Zend bagha-, Pers. baga-, O. Bulg. bogů, √bhag; bhar-a-, cf. Lat. fer-o-, e.g. ensi-feru-m; vark-a- (wolf), √vark; daiv-a- (shining, god), √div (shine), etc.

Amongst verb-stems here belong all conjunctive-stems (§ 161), e.g. as-a-, pres. stem and vas; moreover simple aorist-stems (§ 164), as bhug-a-, √bhug; vavak-a-, √vak; so too pres.-stems (§ 165) like bhar-a-, √bhar (I. b); srav-a-, √sru (II. b); thus here also, as in the case of noun-stems, partly with, partly without, raising of root-vowel.

Sanskrit. Stems in -a-, identical with verb-stems, are frequently used as nouns, e.g. nomina actionis like bháv-a- (masc. being, origin; cf. 3 sg. pres. bháva-ti), √bhu (become, be); bhár-a- (masc. burden; 3 sg. pres. bhára-ti), √bhar (ferre); ģáy-a- (masc. victory; pres. gáya-ti), vģi (conquer); bódh-a

§ 88.

§ 88. (masc. knowledge; pres. bódha-ti), √/budh (know); bhóg-a- (masc. use, enjoyment; a pres. *bhōga-ti or *bhōga-ti does not occur), √bhuý (enjoy); bhéd-a- (masc. splitting), √bhid (split), etc. The datives of these nomina actionis serve for infinitives, e.g. bharāya, etc.; the accusatives, mostly repeated, for gerunds, e.g. gámagamam (ever going), fr. gam-a-, √ gam (go); so bódh-a-m, budh (know); bhed-a-m, bhid (split); stáv-a-m, √stu (praise); kár-a-m, √kar (make, e.g. svādû-káram bhuňktē 'having sweetened he eats '), etc.

Nomina agentis of similar form are found in e.g. plav-á(masc. boat; pres. pláva-tē), √plu (float); kar-á- (adj. going; pres. kára-ti), kar (go); vah-á- (adj. carrying; pres. váha-ti), √vah (uehere); dev-á- (shining, god), vdiv, dyu (shine); giv-á(living; pres. ģiva-ti), √ģw (live), etc. This kind of stemform is preserved most frequently at the end of compounds or words syntactically combined, as arin-damá- (ari-m acc. sg.; foesubduing), dam, etc.

In composition with su- (e-) and dus- (Svo-) adjectives of this kind act like participia necessitatis, e.g. su-kár-a- (easy to be made), duš-kár-a- (difficult to be made), kar (make), etc.

Feminines of the same kind are e.g. bhid-á (splitting), √bhid (split; 3 sg. simple aor. á-bhida-t); kšudh-á (hunger), √kšudh (hunger); mud-á (joy), √mud (enjoy oneself); mrgayā (hunt), verb-stem mrgaya-, 3 sg. pres. mrgaya-të (track, seek), etc.

Such noun-stems in -a- serve for periphrasis of the perfect, and in Ved. also of the aorist, in many verbs, especially all derived verbs, by being placed, in the acc. sg. fem., before the perfect, in Vēd. also before the aorist of an auxiliary verb (kar make; bhu become, be; as be), e.g. st. bubōdhiša-, 3 sg. pf. babōdhiša kakāra or babhūva or āsa, cf. 3 sg. pres. búbōdhiša-ti, intensive √budh (know); st. bōdhaya- (e.g. bōdhaya kakāra, 3 sg. perf.), 3 sg. pres. bōdháya-ti, caus. √budh; st. vida- (3 sg. perf. vida kakāra, Vēdic aor. vidām akar), √vid (see, know), etc.

Greek. Here also nouns in -a- are common, as Fépy-o- (neut. § 88. work), Fepy (épy-áço-μaι I work); pop-ó- (adj. bearing), þóp-o(tribute), pop-á (fem. payment; quick motion), √pep (ferre); Tóμ-o- (masc. cutting, piece), Toμ-ń (cutting, stump), √τEμ (Téμ-vw, č-тeμ-OV cut); (vy-ó- (neut. yoke), √vy (bind together); puy-ń (fem. flight), √/puy (peúy-w, e-Qvy-o-v flee); πλóF-o- (masc. voyage), √πλʊ (πλéƑ-w sail); poƑ-ń (stream), √pu, origl. sru (péF-w, origl. srav-āmi flow); σToνd-ý (haste), voπud (σπeúdw hasten) ; λοιπ-ό- (adj. remaining), Κλιπ (λείπ-ω, ἔ-λιπ-ον leave); ȧк-wк-ń (point) reduplicated vår (be sharp), etc. These forms are mostly not distinguished from the pres.-stems depe-, Xeɩπe-, TλEFε-, except by the stronger step-formation of the root-vowel (perhaps in an unoriginal manner, cf. e.g. Sk. bhara- plava-, etc.).

In compounds also these nouns with suffix origl. -a-, are used, as in Sanskrit, e.g. iππó-daμ-o- (masc. horse-taming); even the peculiar relation of these noun-stems after dvo- and ev- is not wanting, e.g. Súo-pop-o- (hard to bear)=Sk. dur-bhar-a(cf. supr.).

Concerning the infinitives of the aorist, as e.g. Aûoai, Xéğai, which must be taken as locatives from stems like λvoa- and λέξα- = *λεγ-σα, v. supr. § 87.

Latin. Suffix -a- is found in uad-o- (ntr. uadum ford), √uad (go); fid-o- (fidus faithful), √fid; iug-o- (iugum yoke) Viug; son-o- (sonus sound), √son; coqu-o- (coquos cook), √coqu; merg-o- (mergus gull), √merg; užu-o- (adj. living), √uiu (live; 3 pres. uiui-t); diu-o- (godlike), deo- (god) fr. *deu-o-, *deiu-o-, origl. √div (shine); rūf-o- (red), √rub, ruf, origl. rudh (be red),

etc.

A great many nouns of this sort occur at the end of compounds, as causi-dic-o- (causidicus), dic; miri-fic-o- (mirificus), ✔fac; male-uol-o (maleuolus), √uol; ensi-fer-o- (ensifer), √fer; armi-ger-o- (armiger), √ger, ges, etc.

Not unfrequently stems of this kind appear with lengthened