population, however, a system of registration exists, and this system forms the fifth source of our data on the subject. Registra- In certain Provinces, registration is carried out with some tion of degree of efficiency. But the natives shrink from publicity general population. touching the details of their life. They could only be forced Why to give uniform and absolutely trustworthy returns of births, untrust worthy. The Census. Sources of error. Death rate in India. deaths, marriages, sex, and age by a stringent legislation, and a costly administrative mechanism, from which the Government wisely abstains. In municipalities, however, registration furnishes a fairly accurate account of the vital statistics of the urban population. For the rural Districts, special areas in some Provinces were selected for statistical supervision; and this has been now gradually extended, with the exception of certain exceptionally situated tracts, to practically the whole population. But the results obtained are still necessarily imperfect. The Census operations, conducted under special legislation, will furnish a general picture of the Indian people every ten years. But the complete details have, up to the present time of writing, been obtained only for the two Censuses of 1871 and 1881. The chief results of the Census of 1881 are given in chapter ii., and in Appendices I. to X. at the end of this volume. In treating of the public health of India, therefore, three points must always be borne in mind. The data are obtained either, first, from limited classes under special medical conditions; or second, from limited areas under special statistical supervision; or third, from a general system of registration spread over the whole country, but which has hitherto failed to yield trustworthy results. General averages from such sources, struck for the entire population, can only be accepted as estimates based upon the best information at present available. Subject to the above remarks, it may be stated that the evidence goes to show an annual death-rate of 32'57 per thousand in India. During the famine of 1877-78, the deathrate in Madras was ascertained to be equal to an annual rate of 532 per thousand. In 1877, the death-rate among the European troops in India was 12'71 per thousand, being the lowest recorded up to that year; in the native army, 13:38 per thousand; in the public jails, 61'95 per thousand, rising to 176 per thousand in the Madras prisons, which were flooded by the famine-stricken population. In 1883, the death-rate returns of European troops in India showed a mortality of BIRTHS AND DEATHS: BENGAL. 667 10.88 per thousand, the lowest recorded in any year for which full returns have been compiled. In the native army in 1883 the mortality on the total strength was 1176 per thousand, or including men absent from their regiments, 14'31 per thousand, being about one-half the average rates for 1877-81. The jail mortality also showed a satisfactory reduction, the death-rate having fallen to 33'64 per cent. The returns of births, as given hereafter for each Province, are too untrustworthy to allow of an attempt to calculate the birth-rate for the whole country. The average duration of life Average in India is, on slender foundation, estimated at 30 years. duration Instead of attempting generalizations, which, although interesting to the speculative statist, might mislead the actuary and be perverted into an unsound basis for induction, the following paragraphs are confined to the returns as furnished for the separate Provinces; together with the health statistics of the European troops, the native army, and the jail population. The following paragraphs are condensed from the Reports of the Sanitary Commissioner with the Government of India, for 1877 and 1883. statistics In Bengal, the system of collecting statistics over specially Vital selected areas has been abolished, and an attempt is being of Bengal made to obtain returns equally from the whole Province. The in 1877. registration of deaths in 1877 showed a ratio of 1796 per thousand (varying in different Districts from 36 down to 8), which, according to the Sanitary Commissioner, 'must be very much under the truth.' The mortality in towns (where the registration is less incomplete) was returned at 32:49 per thousand, compared with 17:39 in the rural circles. Of the total deathrate, 20 24 per thousand was among males, and only 15'69 among females, a discrepancy which must be due in the main to defective registration.' The birth-rate, which averaged 10:20 per thousand for the whole Province, varied, according to the returns, from 35 in Patna to only 6 per thousand in Bardwán and Bákarganj Districts. The male births were returned in 1877 as exceeding the female births in the proportion of 118 to 100. Registration of vital statistics in Bengal is still very im- Vital perfect, and it is only with regard to deaths that any attempt of Bengal is made at a general registration. The total number of deaths in 1883. returned in 1883 as occurring among a population under registration of 66,163,884, was 1,245,676, or at the rate of 18 per thousand (varying in different Districts from a maximum of 36 down to a minimum of 10 per thousand). The defective character of the registration is shown by the fact that the statistics Vital statistics of Madras in 1877. death-rate among the males was 20'59 per thousand, and among the females 17:08 per thousand, showing an apparent increase of over 18 per cent. of male over female deaths. It is also exhibited in a comparison of the mortality in towns and rural circles. In 96 towns in Bengal where registration is necessarily under closer control, the death-rate amounted to 27:28 per thousand, while in 552 rural registration circles it was only 18:49. Compulsory birth registration in Bengal is only enforced in 46 towns and municipalities, with a population of 1,685,159. These returned a total birthrate of 22.08 per thousand in 1883; but that this is below the truth is exhibited by the fact that the deaths exceeded the births in the ratio of 7.87 per thousand, as well as by the fact that the registered male births in towns exceeded the female births by 14 per cent. The following figures show the causes of the registered deaths in 1883, and the ratio they bear to the general mortality :-Fevers, 13.81 per thousand; cholera, 136 ; small-pox, o'14; bowel complaints, 083; injuries, o‘35; all other causes, 2.30 per thousand. In the Madras Presidency, both births and deaths were much affected in 1877 by the famine which desolated that part of the country, and registration was conducted under special difficulties. Though many defects are consequently apparent, the Sanitary Commissioner is of opinion that the relative intensity of the famine in different circles is fairly represented by the mortuary registration.' The general registered death-rate was 532 per thousand; and in Madras city, 1167 per thousand (see article MADRAS PRESIDENCY, The Imperial Gazetteer of India). Among males, the rate is given as 584, and among females 48'06 per thousand, 'which points. to imperfections in the record of female deaths.' The following figures show the causes under which the deaths of 1877 in Madras were classified :-Cholera, 12.2 per thousand; small-pox, 3'02 ; fevers, 1606; bowel complaints, 4'5; injuries, o'5; all other causes, 16.8 per thousand. The number of registered deaths in 1876 was 23°34, and in 1875, 21'1 per thousand. The famine resulted in a marked reduction in the birth-rate, the ratio for 1877 being only 16'3, or less than that of 1876 by more than 5 per thousand. For every 100 female births, 107 male births were registered. In the nine Districts where the famine was most severe, the birth-rate was only 12 per thousand, whereas in the eight where the people suffered less, the rate was 20 per thousand. Excess of deaths over births in Madras Presidency in 1877, according to the above figures, 369 per thousand of the BIRTHS AND DEATHS: BOMBAY. 669 population. The registration of births and deaths was not compulsory in Madras in 1877 of Madras Registration of vital statistics is still very imperfect in Vital Madras, although better than in the Bengal Districts. The statistics total number of deaths returned in 1883 as occurring among in 1883. a population under registration of 28,503,100, was 541,930, or at the rate of 190 per thousand (varying in the several Districts from a maximum of 38.6 to a minimum of 118 per thousand), the rate of male deaths being 19'7, and of female deaths 18:3 per thousand. The urban death-rate in 76 towns, with a population of 1,696,075, was 24'9 per thousand, as against 18.6 per thousand in 153 rural registration circles, with a total population of 26,839,745. The total number of births registered in 1883 was 791,774, or 27.7 per thousand, a larger number and ratio than in any year since 1869, when registration was first commenced. The excess of male over female births is less in proportion in Madras than in any other Province of India, the ratio being 1046 males to 100 females. The death-rate from different causes in 1883 was returned as follows:- Fevers, 71 per thousand; cholera, 1'2; small-pox, 13; bowel complaints, o'7; injuries, o'4; all other causes, 80 per thousand. Excess of births over deaths registered in 1883, 87 per thousand of population. statistics In the Bombay Presidency, famine affected the death-rate in Vital 1877, and the year was also more than usually unhealthy, of Bombay cholera and small-pox being both epidemic. The mortality, in 1877. according to the returns, was at the rate of 38.76 per thousand. In the famine-stricken Districts the mortality was 55'09, compared with 25.71 per thousand in 1876. The following figures show the causes of the deaths registered in 1877-Cholera, 253; small-pox, 169; fevers, 20'79; bowel complaints, 3'72; injuries, o 46; all other causes, 8.55 per thousand. The birthrate in 1877 was 19:26 per thousand (varying from 29 to 6), or 2:09 per thousand less than the rate for 1876-'a result which is for the most part ascribed to the effects of famine; but also, in great measure, to neglect in registration.' For every 100 female births, III male births were registered. Excess of deaths over births in Bombay Presidency in 1877, 1954 per thousand of the population. Registration shows better results in the Bombay Presidency Vital than in Madras or Bengal, but in the Sind Districts it is still very imperfect, and the returns from these lower the average in 1883. for the entire Presidency. The total number of deaths returned in 1883 was 420,198, or 25:53 per thousand of the statistics Vital North Western and Oudh in 1877. total population (varying from 41'97 per thousand in Khandesh to 919 in the Upper Sind Frontier District), the ratio of male deaths being 26'02, and of female deaths 25.02 per thousand. The male deaths registered were 111'06, for every 100 female deaths. The urban death-rate in 62 towns and municipalities, with a total population of 2,105,756, was 29.61 per thousand, as against 24'94 per thousand in 223 rural registration circles, with a population of 14,348,658. The ratio of mortality due to different causes was returned as follows:-Fevers, 16:21 per thousand; cholera, 2'31; small-pox, o'81; bowel complaints, 214; injuries, o'36; all other causes, 3.70. The number of births registered during the year was 501,801, giving a rate of 30.50 per thousand of the population, which would be considerably higher but for defective returns from Sind. Throughout the entire Presidency, 109:22 male births were registered for every 100 female. The excess of the registered births over the deaths was at the rate of 4'97 per thousand of the population. The North-Western Provinces and Oudh together returned a statistics of death-rate in 1877 of 1967 per thousand, varying from 29 to 12 per thousand. For Oudh alone, the rate was 171; and for Provinces the North-Western Provinces alone, 2016. The mortality in the towns of the amalgamated Province was 29'43, compared with 1899 in the rural circles; and of the total death-rate, 2106 was among males, and 18:12 among females. The registration of births, which in 1877 was confined to the municipalities, showed an average rate of 39'22 per thousand, varying from 70 at Urai to 14 at Dehra. Excess of births over deaths, 10 27 per thousand of the population. and Oudh in 1883. Vital Considerable improvement in registration of vital statistics statistics of in the North-Western Provinces and Oudh has been effected NorthWestern since 1877, and birth as well as death registration is now Provinces carried on throughout the entire Lieutenant-Governorship. The statistics, however, still bear internal evidence that at the best they are only approximately accurate. The total number of deaths returned in 1883 (a year of improved health, accompanied by plenty and cheapness of food) was 1,216,297, or at the rate of 27'57 per thousand of the population, the lowest for any year since 1877 (varying from 48'33 to 17:49 per thousand), the rate of male deaths being 28:49, and of female deaths 26:58 per thousand, the excess of male over female deaths being on an average 15.88 per cent. The urban deathrate in 103 towns and municipalities, with a total population of 2,756,493, was 35 32 per thousand, as against 27:05 per |