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means to an end, came to be treated by Indian Pandits as the end itself, and was subtilized into an intricate science, fenced around by a bristling barrier of technicalities. The language, too, elaborated pari passu with the grammar, rejected the natural name of Hindu-i, or 'the speech of the Hindus,' and adopted an artificial designation, viz. Sanskrita, the perfectly constructed speech' (samovv, con, krita =factus, ' formed'), to denote its complete severance from vulgar purposes, and its exclusive dedication to religion and literature; while the name Prākṛita-which may mean 'the original' as well as 'the derived' speech-was assigned to the common dialect. This of itself is a remarkable circumstance; for, although a similar kind of separation has happened in Europe, yet we do not find that Latin and Greek ceased to be called Latin and Greek when they became the language of the learned, any more than we have at present distinct names for the common dialect and literary language of modern nations.

The Sanskrit dramas afford a notable specimen of this linguistic elaboration on the one side, and disintegration on the other (see p. 469). The two forms of speech thus evolved may be compared to two children of the same parent-the one, called Sanskrit, refined by every appliance of art; the other, called Prakrit, allowed to run more or less wild.

The present spoken languages of India-Bengālī, Uriya or Oriya (of Odra-desa Orissa), Marāṭhī, Gujarāti, Panjābī, and Hindi', with its modifications-represent Prakrit in its later stages of decom

1 By Hindi I mean the speech of the Hindus as represented by the Prem Sagar, and the Rāmāyaṇa of Tulasi Dās. According to Dr. FitzEdward Hall, the Prem Sagar does not furnish a model of the most classical Hindi. There is certainly a modern literary Hindi which borrows largely from pure Sanskrit, and another which is so mixed with Arabic and Persian words as to receive another name, Hindūstānī (p. xxxi, note). Besides Hindi and Hindūstānī and the languages above named, there are Sindhi, Kaśmīrī, Nepālese, Assamese, Pushtu (of Afghanistan), Sinhalese (of Ceylon), Burmese, the five Dravidian (xxx, 2), and the half Dravidian Brahū-i. See Mr. Beames' valuable Comparative Grammar.

2 The various kinds of Prākṛit introduced into the Sanskrit dramas (the two principal forms of which-Mahārāshṭrī and Sauraseni—are explained by Vararući in his grammar, the Prākṛita-prakāśa, edited by Professor E. B. Cowell) represent the last stage of development in the direction of the modern vernaculars. The earlier form of the ancient spoken language, called Pāli or Māgadhi, has a grammar and extensive litera

position, and variously modified by collision with the primitive dialects of different localities.

It must not, however, be supposed that in taking this view of the formation of Sanskrit, I mean to imply that it does not also stand in a kind of parental relation to the spoken dialects. Sanskrit, when too highly elaborated by the Pandits, became in one sense dead, but in another sense it still breathes, and lives in the speech of the people, infusing fresh life and vigour into all their dialects'. For, independent of Sanskrit as the vernaculars probably were in their first origin, they all now draw largely from it, for the enrichment of their vocabulary 2.

ture of its own, the study of which will be greatly facilitated by the Dictionary of Mr. R. C. Childers. Pāli was introduced into Ceylon by Buddhist missionaries from Magadha when Buddhism began to spread, and is now the sacred language of Ceylon and Burmah, in which all their Buddhist literature is written. Singularly enough, it found a kindred dialect established in Ceylon, which had developed into the present Sinhalese. Pali is closely connected with, and was probably preceded by the language of the Rock Inscriptions of the second and third centuries B. C. The language of the Gāthās, as found in the Lalita-vistara (see p. 55, note 1) of the Northern Buddhists of Nepal, is thought by some to be a still earlier form of the popular language; so that four separate stages of Prakrit, using that term generally for the spoken languages of the people which preceded the modern vernaculars, can be traced: 1. the Gāthās; 2. the Inscriptions; 3. the Pāli; 4. the Prākṛit of the plays. (Professor E. B. Cowell's edition of Colebrooke's Essays, II. 21.)

The Sanskrit colleges founded at Benares, Calcutta, and other places, for the cultivation of the learned language and literature of the Hindus, are doing a good work; but, after all, the bearing of Sanskrit upon the vernaculars constitutes a point of primary importance. For we must not forget that the general diffusion of education throughout India must be chiefly effected through the medium of the vernacular dialects, and not merely through English. A knowledge of this fact has led to the establishment of Sir William Muir's new college at Allahabad (the Muir University College'), to which numerous vernacular schools will be affiliated. With reference to the study of the vernaculars and the spread of education by their means, let me recommend a perusal of Sir Charles Trevelyan's Original Papers on the Application of the Roman Alphabet to the Languages of India,' edited by me in 1859 (Longmans).

2 This applies even to the South-Indian languages-Tamil, Telugu, Kanarese, Malayalam, and Tulu; although these are not Aryan in structure, but belong rather to the Turanian or agglutinating family.

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If, then, the mere language of a people-the bare etymology of isolated words, and the history of the changes they have undergone in form and meaning-furnishes an excellent guide to its past and present condition, moral, intellectual, and physical, how much more. must this be true of its literature! And here again we are met by the remarkable fact that India, notwithstanding all its diversities of race, caste, customs, creed, and climate, has to this day but one real literature, accepted by all alike-the common inheritance of all. In European countries, literature changes with language. Each modern dialect has its own literature, which is the best representative of the actual condition of the people to whom it belongs. know the Italians, we need not study Latin, when the modern literature is at our command. But the literature of the Hindu vernacular dialects (except perhaps that of Tamil) is scarcely yet deserving of the name. In most cases it consists of mere reproductions of the Sanskrit1. To understand the past and present state of Indian society-to unravel the complex texture of the Hindu mind; to explain inconsistencies otherwise inexplicable-we must trust to Sanskrit literature alone. Sanskrit is the only language of poetry, drama, law, philosophy-the only key to a vast and apparently confused religious system, and a sure medium of approach to the hearts of the Hindus, however unlearned, or however disunited. It is, in truth, even more to India than classical and patristic literature was to Europe at the time of the Reformation. It gives a deeper impress to the Hindu mind, so that every Hindu, however unlettered, is unconsciously affected by it, and every Englishman, however strange to the East, if only he be at home in Sanskrit literature, will rapidly become at home in every corner of our Indian territories.

These considerations will, I trust, justify my attempt to give some idea of the history and character of India's literature.

Let it be clearly understood, however, that the examples of Indian wisdom given in this volume generally present the bright side of the

1 With regard to Hindustani (otherwise called Urdu), the proper language of the North-western districts and passing current, like French in Europe, over all India, it cannot be said to rank as a distinct language till the time of Tīmūr, about A. D. 1400, when it was finally formed in his Urdu or camp by blending Hindi with the Arabic and Persian of the Muhammadan invaders. Its prose literature, such as it is, certainly owes more to Arabic than to Sanskrit, and is quite modern. The productions of its greatest poet, Sauda, are not much more than a hundred years old.

picture only. To make the sketch a faithful portrait of the reality, dark lines and shadows must be introduced.

many

My reasons for giving prominence to all that is good and true in the Hindu system are stated in the note to p. 3 of Lecture I. Let me now add a few remarks to what is there asserted.

It appears to me high time that all thoughtful Christians should reconsider their position, and-to use the phraseology of our modern physicists-readjust themselves to their altered environments. The ground is now being rapidly cleared for a fair and impartial study of the writings of Eastern nations. The sacred books of the three great systems opposed to Christianity-Brahmanism, Buddhism, and Islam-are now at length becoming accessible to all; and Christians can no longer neglect the duty of studying their contents'. All the inhabitants of the world are being rapidly drawn

1 With regard to the books on which the three great false religions of the world rest, not only have we access to those of Brahmanism and Islam-viz. the Veda and the Kuran-both in printed editions of the originals and in various translations (see pp. 6-9), but even the Buddhist sacred Canon-written in the ancient language called Pāli (see p. xxix, note 2)—is now becoming accessible. Its name Tri-piṭaka, 'three baskets or caskets,' denotes its distribution under three divisions, viz. A. Sūtra (Pali Sutta), works containing the doctrinal and practical discourses of the great Buddha. B. Vinaya, ecclesiastical discipline, or works prescribing rules and penalties for the regulation of the lives of the monks (Bhikshukas, see p. 58). C. Abhidharma (Pāli Abhidhamma), metaphysics and philosophy. These three classes of works were rehearsed at the first council by the Buddha's three pupils, Ananda, Upāli, and Kāsyapa respectively.

A. has five subdivisions, viz. 1. Dīgha-nikāya (dirgha-n°), collections of long Sūtras. 2. Majjhima-nikāya (madhyama-n°), collections of Sutras of a middling length. 3. Sanyutta-nikāya (samyukta-n°), groups of Sutras. 4. Anguttara-nikāya, collections of other Sūtras. 5. Khuddakanikaya (kshudraka-n°), collections of short Sutras in fifteen different works, viz. 1. Khuddaka-patha, lesser readings, edited and translated in the 'Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society' by Mr. R. C. Childers; 2. Dhammapada, religious precepts (lit. verses or words, on Dharma); 3. Udāna, hymns of praise; 4. Itivuttakam, precepts in which Itivuttam, 'it has been so said,' occurs; 5. Sutta-nipāta, occasional Sūtras; 6. Vimanavatthu, stories of celestial mansions; 7. Petavatthu, stories of Pretas; 8. Thera-gāthā; 9. Theri-gāthā, relating to elders among priests and priestesses; 10. Jātaka, the Buddha's previous births; 11. Maha-niddesa, great commentary; 12. Pati sambhida, exposition of the Patis; 13. Apadāna, heroic actions;

together by increased facilities of communication, and St. Paul's grand saying that God has made all nations of men of one blood (Acts xvii. 26)—is being brought home to us more forcibly every day. Steam presses, as well as railroads and telegraphs, are doing a great work, and bringing about rapid changes. They are every day imposing upon us new duties and responsibilities in the opening out of hitherto unexplored regions. Surely, then, we are bound to follow the example of the great Apostle of the Gentiles, who, speaking to Gentiles, instead of denouncing them as 'heathen,' appealed to them as 'very God-fearing' (detodaiμoveσтéρovs), and even quoted a passage from one of their own poets in support of a 14. Buddha-vansa, history of Buddhas who preceded Gotama; 15. Ćariyāpitaka, casket of rites and deeds.

B. has five subdivisions: 1. Pārājika; 2. Pacittiya; 3. Ćulavagga; 4. Mahavagga; 5. Parivara.

C. has seven subdivisions: 1. Dhamma-sanganī; 2. Vibhanga; 3. Kathāvatthu; 4. Puggala; 5. Dhātu; 6. Yamaka; 7. Paṭṭhāna.

Of the fifteen works under the fifth subdivision or Khuddaka-nikāya of A, the Dhamma-pada, Sutta-nipāta, and Jātaka are the most important.

The Dhamma-pada, or precepts of law-entirely in verse-has been edited by Dr. Fausböll, of Copenhagen, with parts of the commentary (Artha-katha or Attha-katha), and translated by Professor Weber (Indische Streifen, I. 118) and by Professor Max Müller.

The Sutta-nipāta has lately been translated by Sir M. Coomāra Swamy (Trübner, 1874). It consists of maxims on doctrine and practice, in prose and verse-sometimes in the form of dialogues-possibly as old as the third Buddhist council, in Aśoka's reign, 246 B. C. (see p. 60). They are compared to the discourses of Vasishtha, addressed to Rama, in the Vasishtharāmāyaṇa (see p. 370).

The tenth work of the fifteen, viz. the Jātaka, has also been partially edited and translated by Fausböll (ten of the Jatakas very recently, Trübner, 1872; five others in 1861).

The above long list of works under A. B. C. constitutes the sacred Canon of the Southern Buddhists of Ceylon. The Tri-piṭaka of the Northern Buddhists of Nepal has probably become corrupted and amplified in some of its details, though the names of the works-as far as has yet been ascertained-are in all likelihood the same. The Sad-dharma-pundarika and the Lalita-vistara (see p. 55, note) were once thought to belong to this Canon, but this is now held to be a mistake. In Burnouf's translation of the former (called by him Lotus de la bonne loi), a note was commenced on the difference between the Northern and Southern Tripitakas, but left unfinished in consequence of his untimely death.

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