So these four kinds of words have been enumerated, nouns (nāman), verbs (ākhyāta), prepositions (upasarga), and particles (nipāta). Sākatayana affirms that nouns are derived from verbs, and on this point there is an agreement of the etymologists (nairukta-samayaḥ). But Gargya and some of the grammarians say that not all (nouns are derived from verbs). For if all nouns came from verbs, then whatever performs the same action ought to have the same name. Thus, if aśva, 'a horse,' were derived from the root as, to pass through,' then every one who passes along a road ought to be called aśva; and if trina, ' a blade of grass,' were derived from the root trid, 'to pierce,' then everything that pierces ought to be called trina. Again, if all nouns were derived from verbs, then everything would have as many names as there are states with which it could be connected. Thus, sthūņā, a post,' might be called dara-sayā, 'hole-sleeper,' because resting in a hole, or san-jani, joiner together,' because things are joined by being attached to it. [Yaska ends by taking the side of Sakaṭāyana. See Professor Max Müller's Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p. 165.]

The thirteenth and fourteenth chapters, commonly called the Nirukta-pariśishța, are thought to be the work of a more recent author than Yāska. There are numerous classical glossaries by later lexicographers, e.g.:

The Amara-kosha (sometimes called Tri-kāṇḍa, 'having three chapters'), by the Bauddha Amara-sinha, probably not later than A. D. 500; the Abhidhāna-ratna-mālā, by Halāyudha; the Abhidhāna-ćintāmaṇi, by the Jaina Hema-candra; the Viśva-prakāśa, by Maheśvara; the Dharani; the Medini; the Haravali, &c.

The Vedangas-Vyakarana, grammar.'

This word Vy-a-karana means literally undoing,' and is applied first to linguistic analysis and then generally to grammar, but especially to Panini's grammar1. It is the opposite to Sanskarana, putting together,' whence the formed language is called Sanskrita, 'constructed.' Strictly, the great Vyakaraṇa of Panini can scarcely be regarded as a Vedan ga, seeing that it only treats of the

1 No Pandit would use Vyakarana except for Sanskrit grammar, and a man's Sanskrit scholarship is often summed up by describing him as knowing the Vyakaran.'

Vedic idiom exceptionally. The grammatical Sūtras which preceded his time and which have nearly all perished must have constituted the Vyakarana division of works ancillary to the study of the Veda'. Nevertheless, the grammar of Panini, which is the great standard of correct Sanskrit, is usually taken to represent this Vedān-ga, and as it is one of the most remarkable literary works that the world has ever seen, and as no other country can produce any grammatical system at all comparable to it, either for originality of plan or for analytical subtlety, a brief description of its characteristic features may be introduced here.

Little or nothing is known of Panini, the author of the grammar. He is described as a descendant of Panin and grandchild of an inspired legislator named Devala. His mother's name was Dākshi (whence he is called Dāksheya), and Salātura in the Gandhara country (Kandahar), northwest of Attock on the Indus, is said to have been his birth-place (whence his name Śālāturīya). He belonged, therefore, to the North-western or Western school. As, however, in later times he became more and more an object of reverence, he was at last actually canonized by his admirers, that is to say, exalted to the rank of a Rishi or inspired Muni. Hence he is fabled to have seen rather than composed his grammar, which was declared to have been supernaturally revealed to him, the first fourteen

1 Pāṇini himself mentions several grammarians as having preceded him, such as Āpisali, Kasyapa, Gargya, Galava, Cakravarmaṇa, Bhāradvāja, Sākaṭāyana, Sakalya, Senaka, and Sphoṭāyana. The Uṇādi-sūtras (commented on by Ujjvala-datta), giving the affixes, commencing with un, for the formation of words whose meaning has deviated from accordance with their etymology, and whose root is not always clear, are thought by some to be anterior to Panini. Possibly he may have made a list of them himself. At any rate, he mentions the affixes in III. 3. 1, III. 4. 75Santanava's Phit-sutras on accent are probably later than Pāṇini. They have been well edited by Professor Kielhorn. I believe Dr. Bühler has found part of a work which claims to be Sakaṭāyana's grammar.

Sūtras especially having been communicated, according to the legend, by the god Siva. It is of course quite impossible to fix with certainty at what period Pāṇini lived. The late Professor Goldstücker thought he had good grounds for deciding that the great grammarian preceded Buddha. This would place him in the sixth century B. C. Other scholars, whose opinions are entitled to respect, consider that an earlier date cannot be assigned to him. than the middle of the fourth century B. C.

His work-perhaps the most original of all productions of the Hindu mind--is sometimes called the Ashṭādhyāyi, sometimes Ashṭakam Pāṇinīyam, because it consists of eight lectures (Adhyāyas), each of which is again subdivided into four chapters (Pādas). In these eight Adhyāyas are contained 3996 Sūtras or Aphorisms1. The first Adhyaya explains the technical terms used in the grammar and the rules for their interpretation and application. A root is called Dhatu, and a crude base Prātipadika, but a root never appears without some appendage (anubandha) in the shape of indicatory syllables or letters (technically called it) which do not really form part of the root, but merely denote certain peculiarities in its inflection, conjugation, &c. Similar indicatory letters and syllables (it) are attached either at the beginning or end of all affixes, augments, &c. The case affixes are called sup,

1 Three or four of these are supposed to be later additions. In the excellent odition of Professor Böhtlingk there are 3997, including the fourteen Siva Sūtras. Pāņini is also the supposed author of the oldest Dhatu-pāṭha or dictionary of roots with their Anubandhas.

2 A rule giving the key to Panini's Sūtras and their application is called a Paribhāshā; one which explains the technical terms is a Sanjñā.

s For example, the root nid is called nidi to show that a nasal is inserted in conjugation, thus, nindāmi, nindasi, &c. The affix maya is called mayat to show that its feminine is mayī. Sometimes these Its or Anubandhas serve to distinguish two roots or affixes, which, although similar in sound, have different senses; for example, the root dā, 'to

and the personal endings or terminations of verbs tin. Between the latter and the root a conjugational syllable is inserted, called vikarana. The third chapter of the first Adhyāya treats of the proper use of the active voice (Parasmai-pada) and middle or reflexive voice (Ãtmanepada). The second Adhyāya explains compound words. The third, fourth, and fifth Adhyāyas enumerate the various affixes and their meanings. Those belonging to verbs occupy the third Adhyāya; those affixed to nouns, the fourth and fifth. The sixth, seventh, and eighth Adhyāyas treat of the changes which roots and affixes undergo by augments and substitutions of various kinds. For brevity and economy of words nothing can be more successful than the system in which all this immense and intricate subject is explained. The Sūtras of Pāņini are indeed a perfect miracle of condensation, their main design apparently being to aid the memory of teachers rather than learners by the briefest possible suggestions. When a single letter can be saved every other consideration is sacrificed to this paramount object; and to attain a greater amount of abridgment than could be effected by the use of ordinary words an arbitrary symbolical language is coined, the key to which must be acquired before the rules themselves can be rendered intelligible'. Perhaps the closing Sutra of the whole work may be taken as the best instance of the consummate brevity attained. It consists of two letters, as follows: a a. This is said to mean :

give,' is called dudan, while da, 'to divide,' is called dap; the affix vat, meaning 'like,' is called vati, while the affix vat, meaning 'possessed of,’ is called vatup. Sometimes the only use of these Anubandhas is to enable Pratyāhāras to be formed; thus the case-ending of the accusative dual is called aut merely for the sake of forming the Pratyahāra suṭ.

1 For example, syan stands for the characteristic of roots of the fourth class, yak for the passive, nié for the causal, san for the desiderative, yan for the intensive.

Let short a be held to have its organ of utterance contracted, now that we have reached the end of the work in which it was necessary to regard it as otherwise.

aći.

Here is one from the sixth Adhyaya (1. 77): Iko yan This, of course, is not Sanskrit, but a kind of grammatical algebra. Ik is a symbol standing for the four vowels i, u, ri, lri, and gifted with an imaginary genitive case ikah (here changed to iko). Yan is a symbol for the letters y, v, r, 1; and ać (supposed to possess a locative case aći) represents all the vowels. The rule at full is:

The letters y, v, r, I take the place of i, u, ri, lṛi, short or long, respectively, when followed by any dissimilar vowel.

Moreover, an aphorism which stands at the head of a series and is hence called an Adhikara or governing rule' is never repeated, but must be supplied after the whole series till the influence (anuvṛitti) of this governing Sutra is supposed to cease, such cessation being called nivṛitti. Thus the seventy-fourth Sūtra of the third chapter of Adhyāya I is ṇićaś-ća, which must be interpreted thus:

And after a verbal base ending in the causal affix (nie) the Atmanepada must come when the result of the action returns to the agent.

Of course nearly all the matter necessary to make this rule intelligible has to be supplied from other rules, and especially from the Adhikara rule 12, which is separated by sixty-two intervening Sūtras.

In short, a careful examination of Pāņini's grammar will dispose the student to appreciate Colebrooke's remark that the endless pursuit of exceptions and limitations. so disjoins the general precepts, that the reader cannot keep in view their intended connection and mutual relation. He wanders in an intricate maze, and the clue of the labyrinth is continually slipping from his hand.'

In point of fact, however, this grammar ought not to be examined from a European point of view at all.