country in the Middle Ages and asking charity, under pretence of going a la Sainte Terre, to the Holy Land, till the children exclaimed, 'There goes a sainte-terrer!'a saunterer, a Holy Lander. We speak of a 'sardonic' smile, without reference to a plant growing in Sardinia, which is said to have caused those who ate of it to die of laughing: of a 'jovial' person, without reference to the pagan deity under whose joyful star, Jupiter or Jove, it was of happiest augury to be born: of an 'atlas,' without reference to the demi-god, Atlas, who upheld the world: of a 'volcano,' without reference to Vulcan, the god of the fire and the forge: of the days of the week, without reference to the gods our Saxon forefathers worshipped in the forests of Germany We recognize no metaphor when we hear a person speak, in ordinary conversation, of a 'sweet voice,' a 'sweet look,' a 'sweet feeling'; of 'bitter cold,' 'bitter satire,' 'bitter experience'; of a 'glorious concert'; of 'delicate odors,' or 'delicate sensibilities.' The proper names Long, Short, Smalley, Strong, Armstrong, Longfellow, Swift, Hardy, Sweet, Moody, Gray, Russell (red), no longer recall their humble origin as names of personal qualities. 'Stella' or 'Esther' is not for us the star; nor Margaret' the pearl; nor 'Susanna' the lily; nor 'Stephen' the crown; nor 'Albert' the all-bright; nor 'Daisy' the eye of day, or day's eye — That well by reason it men callen may 'Right' means straight; 'wrong' means twisted; 'transgression,' the crossing of a line; 'supercilious,' the raising of the eyebrows; 'subject,' something placed underneath, as a mat to stand upon. Other examples of faded metaphors are reflect (as a mirror throws back the rays of light), educate, sincere, remark, conclude, attention, design, essay, desultory, atonement,' impress, and others innumerable, borrowed from sensible things and appropriated to spiritual nature. Figures (metaphors), then, far from being the product of an advanced culture, are, as we have seen, the wheels by which language moves, the wings by which it soars. The bulk of human speech consists of terms originally figurative, which from frequency and multiplicity of use have come to be regarded as literal. Indeed, how many words (as instanced above), transferred from foreign languages into ours, have never been used in their literal sense at all in the English language. As the limestone of the continent consists of infinite masses of the shells of animalcules, so language is made up of images, or tropes, which now, in their secondary use, have long since ceased to remind us of their poetic origin.' 'What is commonly called figurative language is new coin, or what retains all the distinctness and boldness of the original impress; literal language is old coin with the image or signature worn out by passing through many hands.'' May we not now understand that language incarnates thought? that the proper study of language is therefore the study of thought? that in the common use of words we talk poetry without suspecting it? that a full history of words would be a history of the human race? 1 And lyke as he made the Jewes and the gentiles at one be-twene themselves, even so he made them both at one with God, that there should be nothing to break the at-onement. but that the thynges in earth should be joyned together, as it were, into one body.-Udal. 2 Emerson. 3 Gilchrist. PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS. As those expressions commonly considered literal are in general merely worn-out or mummified metaphors, it is impossible to draw the boundary between literal and figurative terms with precision. To attempt it is an abuse of criticism, and a principal cause why 'Ten censure wrong for one who writes amiss.' Not to reproduce the multitudinous rules of the classic ceremonial, most of which entangle the weak and are ignored by the strong, it may be suggested, as evident to any one of ordinary breadth of mind (1) That the figure should be appropriate to the subject. (2) That the figure should be adapted to the general understanding. (3) That figures should not be so multiplied as to produce weariness, or so intermixed as to produce confusion. (4) That, in a given period, the images which they introduce should not be obviously incompatible. If the analysis of an example is not evident at sight, consider first whether the example contains a figure of thought. Is it interrogation? If not, is it exclamation? If not, is it climax or antithesis? To answer these separate questions, there must be in the mind a distinct picture of the figure proposed. Consider, second, whether the example may contain a figure of diction. You will here inquire whether a word is used with a variation of form, office, or syntax merely, or in a sense not literal. If it then appears that a given word is used with a transfer of meaning, you will give it the generic name of metaphor, adding its specific name, if it has one. Is it metonymy? If not, is it personification? If so, which degree? etc. Sometimes the figure may be detected more easily by viewing the example as a whole, or in outline; as in irony and the third degree of personification, where the figure depends quite as much on the pervading thought as on the idea of a particular word. Again, it may be advisable to restrict the view, and inspect, slowly and carefully, one line at a time. Perhaps not infrequently it will be found expedient to employ, in turn, both modes of procedure. You can never analyze an example by a prolonged stare. Think, and think by method. There must be in your mind's eye standards of comparison by which to judge and classify, and these standards are no other than the definitions with their typical illustrations. EXERCISES. I. Most of the following contain figures- some do not. Indicate the figurative parts, without naming them, carefully discriminating, where required, (1) the literal meaning of the word, (2) the intended or figurative meaning, (3) the association between the two, (4) the source or basis of association. Thus: 1. The light shineth in darkness, and the darkness comprehendeth it not.' Literal: The sun shines without effect upon the blind, because the proper sense is wanting. Intended: The effect of sin, corrupting the heart and clouding the judgment, is insensibility to spiritual instruction. Association: Similitude, or resemblance. The spiritually blind are insensible to the Divine teachings, as the physically blind are insensible to the light of the sun. Basis: The analogy between matter and spirit. 2. 'Give us this day our daily bread.' Literal: A species of food made of flour or meal. Intended Food in general. Association: Relation between the whole and a part, or between the genus and a species. Basis: Analogy between one material substance and another. 3. Streaming grief his faded cheek bedewed.' Literal: Mental distress. Intended: Tears-effect of grief. Association: Relation between cause and effect. Basis: Analogy between spirit and matter. 4. 'It was a brilliant thought.' Literal: A glittering or lustrous appearance. Intended: A thought of unusual excellence or merit. 5. 'Man! Thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear.` Literal: A body suspended from a fixed point and swinging to and fro between limits, as the pendulum of a clock. Intended: Man's life is full of contrasted experiences, alternately happy and sorrowful. Association: Resemblance. Basis: Analogy between matter and spirit. 6. A sunny disposition. 7. A flashy character. 8. Hazy thoughts. 9. Unclouded hopes. 10. Starless despair. 11. Rosy-fingered morn. 12. Wheeling planets. 13. The natural world. 14. Golden clouds. 15. A gorgeous sunset. 16. Ruffled spirits. 17. Checkered life. 18. The very head and front of my offending. 19. I will run in the way of thy commandments. 20. Joy brightened his soul. 21. It cannot be wondered at, considering the greenness of his years. 22. The swan gives out his snowy plumage to the gale. 23. Time had worn deep furrows in his face. 24. No beauty beaming on his clouded mind. 25. O thou, who sweetly bendst my stubborn will. 26. He almost sank beneath the iron arm of war. 27. Virtue is a jewel. 28. That the earth is a sphere is easily proved. 29. Thy word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my path. 30. Groans are the flowers plucked from the tree of anguish. 31. A green memory. 32. Satan is a roaring lion. 33. She was the favorite lamb of his little flock. 34. My advent'rous song. 35. The pilot steers the fearless ship. 36. Shapeless age brings thy father to his drooping chair. 37. My soul is melted because of trouble. 38. But sent leanness into their souls. 39. The artist commenced with a soft streamy note of celestial quality; and with three or four whips of his bow |