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similar manner with some that preceded them, and so on. All the phenomena of nature, then, are the necessary, or in other words, the unconditional, consequences of some former collocation of causes. The state of the whole universe, at any instant, is the consequence of its state at the previous instant. If one knew all the agents which exist at the present moment, and the laws of their agency, he might predict the whole future history of the universe. J. S. Mill.1

6. Which of the four forms of expression are combined in the following, and which predominates?

The type-species of every genus, the type-genus of every family, is, then, one which possesses all the characters and properties of the genus in a marked and prominent manner. The type of the Rose family has alternate stipulate leaves, wants the albumen, has the ovules not erect, has the stigmata simple, and besides these features, which distinguish it from the exceptions or varieties in its class, it has the features which make it prominent in its class. It is one of those which possess clearly several leading attributes; and thus, though we cannot say of any one genus that it must be the type of the family, or of any one species that it must be the type of the genus, we are still not wholly to seek: the type must be connected by many affinities with most of the others of its group; it must be near the centre of the crowd, and not one of the stragglers.— Whewell.

7. The same of this:

Glass is a transparent, impermeable, and brittle substance. Its essential ingredients are silica and potash, to which various other substances are occasionally added; one of the most common and important of which is oxide of lead, by which the fusibility and density of the glass is increased, so that it is more easily worked and more brilliant, especially when ornamented by cutting. There are several kinds of glass, differing in their composition, and employed for different purposes. Flint-glass is used for decanters, drinkingglasses, chandeliers, and other ornamented furniture: it is composed of the three substances already named. Crown-glass, which is used for windows, is compounded of silica and soda, with a portion of lime. Green bottle-glass is made of a mixture of sand with impure wood-ashes, kelp, and a portion of brick clay. These kinds of glass are manufactured by fusing their elements in a furnace, and then

I Logic.

subjecting them to the operation of blowing. Plate-glass, the finest of all kinds, and the most difficult to make, is used in certain philosophical instruments, and also for mirrors and windows. It is composed of fine sand, soda, lime, black oxide of manganese, cobalt blue, and fragments of good glass. These materials, when in a state of perfect fusion, are poured out on a hot copper plate; and the mass is then rolled out, annealed, and polished by grinding.

Glass is supposed to have been invented among the Phoenicians. The discovery of pieces of glass in the ruins of Thebes, shows that it was known to the Egyptians. It seems to have been applied by them almost exclusively to articles of ornament and luxury. But now it has become an article of general utility, and its manufacture is one of the highest interest. If we consider the worthlessness of the original materials from which it is made, the ingenuity exhibited in the process of making it, the beauty of the forms into which it is ultimately molded, and the variety of most useful and necessary purposes which it serves, it is not too much to say that the manufacture is one of the most important in the history of inventions. Not two centuries have elapsed since glass superseded the nondescript and unsatisfactory provisions formerly used for windows; but so evident has been its utility, that the meanest cottage is now supplied with it in various forms. The houses of the rich and the poor alike are now constructed with greater attention to light, cheerfulness, and beauty, from the supply of glass being so abundant and cheap. And there can be no question that the tastes and habits of both classes alike have been improved by the liberal use of this admirable product of industrial skill.—Chambers's Encyclopedia.

8. Discuss the following arguments:

(1) Under Chatham, the British nation rose suddenly to prosperity; therefore he was the cause of the improvement.

(2) States, in respect to vital constitution, are like individuals they pass through the successive stages of infancy, youth, maturity, old age, and death.

(3) The sun and planets gravitate; therefore the stars gravitate.

(4) Designing persons are untrustworthy;

Everybody forms designs;

... Nobody can be trusted.

(5) Whatever represses the liberty of mankind ought to be re

sisted;

Among those things that do so, there are governments;

... Governments ought to be resisted.

(6) If the wife you espouse be beautiful, she excites jealousy; If she be ugly, she disgusts;

Therefore it is best not to marry.-Bias.

9. The following lines were addressed to the American people in time of despondency. Classify the argument:

Great Britain, at the expense of three millions of pounds, has killed a hundred and fifty Yankees this campaign, which is twenty thousand pounds a head; and at Bunker Hill she gained a mile of ground, half of which she lost again by our taking post on Plowed Hill. During the same time sixty thousand children have been born in America. From these data may easily be calculated the time and expense necessary to kill us all, and conquer the whole territory. 10. Give the topical outline of the history of creation as presented in Genesis.

11. Write out in order the leading incidents in the life of Cæsar, Pitt, and Napoleon.

12. Describe:

(1) The British Parliament.

(2) The Government of the United States.

(3) Mount Etna.

(4) The Yosemite Valley.

13. Reduce to the syllogistic form:

(1) Why boast we, Glaucus, our extended reign,
Where Xanthus' streams enrich the Lycian plain,
Our numerous herds, that range the fruitful field,
And hills, where vines their purple harvest yield,
Our foaming bowls with purer nectar crown'd,
Our feasts enhanc'd with music's sprightly sound;
Why on those shores are we with joy survey'd,
Admir'd as heroes, and as gods obey'd,
Unless great acts superior merit prove,
And vindicate the bounteous powers above?
"Tis ours the dignity they give to grace;
The first in valor, as the first in place.-Homer.

(2)

If there's a power above us,

And that there is all nature cries aloud

In all her works, he must delight in virtue;

And that, which he delights in, must be happy.—Addison.

(3) Man is either a free or a necessitated agent. If the latter, he cannot, of himself, decide between conflicting motives, and is irresponsible. But these conclusions are contradicted by consciousness. Therefore he is free.

14. Discuss: Ought capital punishment to be abolished?

See Nation, Vol. VIII, p. 166, Vol. XVI, p. 213; North American Review, Vol. LXII, p. 40, Vol. CXVI, p. 138, Vol. CXXXIII, p. 534; Foreign Quarterly Review, Vol. XXIV, p. 394; Blackwood's Magazine, Vol. XXVII, p. 865; Westminster Review, Vol. XVII, p. 52, Vol. XCI, p. 429; Carson's Capital Punishment is Murder Legalized; Montagu's On the Punishment of Death; Cheever's Punishment by Death; Cox's Principles of Punishment, pp. 1-14, 77 seq.; S. G. Goodrich's Young American, pp. 234, 235; Fortnightly Review, Vol. XL, p. 581.

15. Discuss: Is America ready for the adoption of free-trade principles?

See Thompson's Political Economy, pp. 351-360; Fawcett's Free Trade and Protection, pp. 48-73; Cairnes' Political Economy, pp. 375 seq.; Young's Introduction to the Science of Government, pp. 277 seq.; Bowen's American Political Economy, pp. 480 seq.; Sullivan's Protection to Native Industry; North American Review, Vol. XL, p. 122, Vol. XCV, p. 463, Vol. CXXVIII, p. 695; Atlantic, Vol. XXXVI, p. 298; Nation, Vol. XXVIII, p. 161; Fraser's Magazine, Vol. CCXXII, p. 604; Blackwood's Magazine, Vol. CCXXII, p. 447; Edinburgh Review, Vol. XC, p. 133.

16. Discuss: Are labor-strikes, on the whole, beneficial and justifiable?

See Bowen's American Political Economy, p. 110; Brassey's On Work and Wages, p. 1; North American Review, January, 1885; William Trant's Trade Unions; Nation, Vol. XXXVII, p. 70; International Review, Vol. XIV, p. 353; Fraser's Magazine, Vol. C, p. 767; Westminster Review, Vol. LXXIV, p. 1; British Quarterly, Vol. LVIII, p. 336; Living Age, Vol. XXXIX, p. 227; Blackwood's Magazine, Vol. CI, p. 718; Henry George's Social Problems, p. 178; Henry George's Progress and Poverty, p. 281; F. B. Hawley's Capital and Population, p. 130; Joseph's Cook's Labor, p. 286; William Boscher's Principles of Political Economy, Vol. I, p. 176, Vol. II, p. 84.

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Doth glance from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven,

And, as imagination bodies forth

The forms of things unknown, the poet's pen

Turns them to shapes, and gives to airy nothing

A local habitation and a name.- SHAKESPEARE.

N a book of topography or a tourist's journal, we might read, 'See yon row of pines at twilight eve, how, shorn and bowed, they bend before the sea-blast.' Now observe the magical effect of union with the spiritual, or rather of refraction through it:

Yon row of bleak and visionary pines,

By twilight glimpse discerned, mark! how they flee
From the fierce sea-blast, all their tresses wild
Streaming before them.—Shakespeare.

So the landscape painter, omitting the details, gives us only the spirit and splendor. Prose reality values Nature. as substance; poetic, as symbol. Note, in the following stanza on the death of Keats, the vitalizing and exalting power of mind, when, penetrated with its sentiment, it projects it outward, as if heaven and earth were but the painted vicissitudes of soul:

Morning sought

Her eastern watch-tower, and, her hair unbound,
Wet with the tears that should adorn the ground,
Dimmed the aerial eyes that kindle day;

Afar the melancholy thunder moaned,

Pale Ocean in unquiet slumber lay,

And the wild winds flew 'round, sobbing in their dismay.

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