two matters for discussion: (1) First, the doctors have agreed that the commanding (men) to do what is approved and the prohibiting them from doing what is disapproved are incumbent, but they then disagreed in several points: (a) First, is it incumbent by reason or by tradition? Shaykh Tûsî held the first (position), and Sayyidu'l-Murtaḍâ the second, and the author also held the second. And the Shaykh gave as his proof that this commanding and prohibiting were kindness (lutf) in doing what is incumbent and forsaking what is evil, and hence they were incumbent by reason. We say in reply that what is incumbent by reason does not belong exclusively to the individual (but belongs to Allâh). (What is wajib by reason belongs exclusively to Allâh, what is wajib for man is all traditional.) Hence in this case it would be incumbent upon the Most High, and that is false. For if He did these things (command what is approved and prohibit what is disapproved), then every evil thing would have to be removed and every incumbent thing would have to be performed, since commanding is inciting (haml) to a thing and prohibiting is hindering from it. But what occurs is the opposite of that. And if He did not do that (that is, if the evil in the world is due to His not having commanded and prohibited), then He would have failed to perform what is incumbent. But He is the Wise (Ḥakîm), and this objection needs examination (cannot be accepted).

243. (b) Second, are they incumbent upon the individuals themselves, or may another act as substitute? The Shaykh held the first and the Sayyid the second. The Shaykh gave as his proof that incumbence is universal without any specialization, according to the word of the Most High, "Ye are the best folk that hath been raised up unto mankind, ye enjoin the Just (al-ma'rûf) and ye forbid the Evil (al-munkar)" (3:106). And the Sayyid gave as proof the fact that what was desired (al-maqṣûd) was that what was incumbent should be performed and what was evil should be removed, and therefore he who performs it (commands to do good and forbids evil) suffices for another (who does not). And also because of the word of the Most High, " And that there may

be among you a people who invite to the Good, and enjoin the Just, and forbid the wrong " (3: 100).

244. (2) The second discussion is about the conditions of their being incumbent, four of which the author has here mentioned: (a) First, the knowledge on the part of him who commands and prohibits that what is approved is approved and what is disapproved is disapproved, since if it were not thus he would surely command what was not approved and prohibit what was not disapproved. (b) Second, that they be things which will occur in the future, for a command to do what is past, or a prohibition to abstain from it is nonsense, and nonsense is evil. (c) Third, that he who commands and prohibits consider it possible that his commanding and prohibiting have some effect, for when he is sure that it will be ineffective, or considers it improbable, it ceases to be incumbent. (d) Fourth, the safety from harm of him who commands and prohibits, affecting either himself or any other Muslim, resulting from his commanding and prohibiting. For if he thinks it probable that harm will result, it ceases to be incumbent. And commanding and prohibiting with the heart and the tongue and the hand are incumbent and it should not be done in a severe manner when a gentler is possible.

245. And this is what I set out to finish and to write, and what it was my lot to collect and arrange, in spite of the small demand (for such a book) and my being short-handed (as to funds), along with the occurrence of journeys and the disturbance of my thoughts. However, I have hope in the goodness of the Most High that He will make it profitable, and that He will make it pure before His face. Verily, He hears and He answers, and Allâh is the Best of those who Give Success and who Appoint! Praise be to Allâh the Lord of the Worlds, and the blessing of Allâh be upon Muḥammad and all of his descendants!

Par. 10.

NOTES

a The Mu'tazilites also " agreed that the principles of ma'rifa and thankfulness for blessings are wâjib before one hears (the Prophet)" (Shahrastânî, ed. by Cureton, "al-Milal wa'n-Niḥal," p. 29). But the Ash'arite position was that ma'rifa is known to be incumbent not by reason but by tradition only.

b We see here that the Shî'ites hold that the ușûl are all known by reason, whereas the Ash'arite position is that they are known only by tradition.

Par. 16.

“And with regard to taqlid (blind acceptance)—the learned differ. Some say that it does not suffice, and that the muqallid (blind accepter) is an unbeliever (kâfir). Ibn al-Arabi (d. 543) held this and as-Sanûsî, and the latter gave in his commentary on his Kubrâ a lengthy refutation of those who hold that taqlid is sufficient ” (Creed of al-Faḍâlî, Macdonald, "Development of Muslim Theology," etc., p. 316). The Mu'tazilites with their emphasis on reason rejected taglîd, and the Shi'ites have followed them.

Par. 19.

a In the creed of al-Nasafî, "Belief and Islam are one (Macdonald, Development," p. 312). But the Shî'ites consider Islâm to be wider than faith. See par. 234.

Par. 38.

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The Sunnites usually list the positive qualities as follows: Life, Knowledge, Power, Will, Hearing, Seeing, Speaking (creed of alGhazzâlî, Macdonald, Development," p. 304). The Shi'ites agree with them as to the first four qualities, though they place Power first. But in place of Hearing and Seeing they put Perceiving. They retain Speaking, but add two more to the list, namely, Being Eternal and Veracity.

Par. 47.

a an-Nazzâm was a prominent Mu'tazilite. See Macdonald, "Development," p. 140.

Par. 50.

By denying that Allâh does everything that He has Power to do the Shi'ites try to guard Him from evil without limiting His Power.

Par. 58.

a The Şifâtians held that the divine qualities were eternally inherent in the essence of Allâh. The Mu'tazilites rejected this doctrine, because “if the qualities share in priority they would share in godhood also," and the multiplicity of eternal existences would have to result, and this they denied. They said that the qualities were not in addition to the essence, but were the essence itself. Thus Allâh is Knowing by His essence, not by His Knowledge, and is Powerful by His essence, not by His Power. (Shahrastânî, p. 29; Macdonald, "Development," p. 136; Sell, “The Faith of Islam,” third edition, pp. 194, 195.)

The Ash'arites held that the qualities were inherent in the essence, and were in addition to the essence. "He has qualities from all eternity existing in His essence." But they guarded themselves against the objection of the Mu'tazilites by adding, They are not He nor are they any other than He" (creed of an-Nasafî, Macdonald, "Development," p. 309).

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The Shi'ites adopted the Mu'tazilite doctrine in full. They teach that the qualities are the essence itself, and that Allâh is Powerful by His essence, Knowing by His essence, etc.

Par. 62.

a See Macdonald, "Development," p. 170, etc.

Par. 63.

a The doctrine of Will's being a form of Knowledge is also due to Mu'tazilite influence. Abû Hudhayl (d. c. 226 A.H.) "endeavoured— and in this he was followed by most of the Mu'tazilites-to cut down the number of Allâh's attributes. His Will, he said, was a form of His Knowledge; He knew that there was good in an action, and that knowledge was His will" (Macdonald, "Development,” p. 137).

Par. 67.

a This quality of Perception is given in place of the two qualities of Hearing and Sight which are always included in the orthodox list. The Shi'ites inherited from the Mu‘tazilites a dislike to all expressions which seemed to suggest anthropomorphism, and they here resolve Hearing and Sight into the Knowledge of things heard and seen. Par. 76.

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a The orthodox belief is thus stated in the creed of al-Ghazzâlî (Macdonald, "Development," pp. 303-304): “ And we witness that He speaks, commanding, forbidding, praising, threatening, with a speech from all eternity, prior, subsisting in His essence, not resembling the speech of created things. It is not a sound which originates through the slipping out of air, or striking of bodies; nor is it a letter which is separated off by the closing down a lip or moving a tongue . . . And the Qur'ân is repeated by tongues, written in copies, preserved in hearts: 3: yet it, in spite of that, is prior, subsisting in the essence of Allâh, not subject to division and separation through being transferred to hearts and leaves. And Mûsâ heard the speech of Allâh without a

sound and without a letter, just as the pious see the essence of Allâh in the other world, without a substance or an attribute.”

Par. 79.

a al-Ash'arî had said, "We teach that the Qur'ân is Allâh's Word, and that it is uncreated, and that whoever says it is created is an unbeliever (kâfir)" (Macdonald, "Development," p. 295). The Shî'ite reply is that the calling of anything prior except the divine essence is kufr !

Par. 81.

Veracity is not given as one of the divine qualities in any of the Sunnite creeds, nor have I found any mention of it by the Mu'tazilites. But its admission by the Shi'ites to the list of the positive qualities is no doubt due to their emphasis upon Justice in Allâh's character. Par. 90.

"The Mu'tazilites have agreed in rejecting comparison (tashbîh) of Him of every sort, as to direction or locus or form or body or limitation or motion or decrease or change or impression, and they have made it incumbent to explain (ta'wîl) the figurative (mutashâbih) verses (Shahrastânî, p. 29). This was a protest against the anthropomorphism of the Hanbalites and Karrâmites who took literally the statements of the Koran about Allâh's hands, face, His sitting on His throne, etc. The Ash'arites also rejected this anthropomorphism, but they felt it was impious to pry into the nature of Allâh and try to explain what was meant by His hands and His throne. Hence they simply affirmed that "Allâh has settled Himself upon His throne," that He "has a countenance-and two hands-and two eyes, without asking how (bila kayfa)" (creed of al-Ash'arî, Macdonald, "Development," pp. 294, 190). The Shi'ites follow the Mu'tazilites in holding that the anthropomorphisms must be explained (ta’wîl).

Par. 99.

a See note on par. 58.

Par. 101.

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They have agreed in denying the vision of Allah the Most High with the eyes in the future life (Shahrastânî, p. 29). The Shi'ites agree wholly with the Mu'tazilites in this matter.

b al-Ash'arî said, "We believe that Allâh at the Day of Resurrection will be visible to the eyes, as the moon is seen upon the night of the full moon; the believers will see Him . . . We teach that Moses besought Allâh that he might see Him in this world; then Allâh revealed Himself to the mountain and turned it into dust and taught Moses thereby that he could not see Him in this world (Qur. 7, 139)" (Macdonald, “Development," p. 295).

And according to the creed of an-Nasafî, “That there is a Vision (ru'ya) of Allâh the Most High is allowed by reason and certified by tradition (naql). A proof on authority has come down with the affirma