with the things determined (muqtaḍayât) by them, such as the control of Power over that which is decreed (maqdûr), and of Knowledge over that which is known. And, according to this second sense, there is no dispute about these qualities, being things which are relative, in addition (to the essence), and changing as the things with which they are connected change and vary.

99. But in regard to the first sense, the Karrâmites thought that the qualities are originated things and are renewed in like manner as the things with which they are connected are renewed. They said that He was not Powerful at first, but later became Powerful, and that He was not Knowing, but later became Knowing. And the reality is contrary to this. For what is renewed in what they mentioned is the relative connection. And if they mean that, it is self-evident. Otherwise, it is false for two reasons: (1) First, if His qualities are things originated and renewed, it would be necessary for Him to be acted upon and to change. But the necessity is false, hence that which necessitates it is false also. And there are two proofs of this: (a) First His qualities are essential, and their change would require the change of the essence and its being acted upon. And (b) second, the origin of the qualities would necessitate the origin of His ability to be a locus for them, and that would require the passibility and changeableness of the locus. But it is impossible for the nature (mâhiyya) of the Most High to be subject to change and passibility. Hence His qualities are not originated, which is what we sought. (2) Second, the qualities of the Most High are perfect qualities, because it is impossible for them to have imperfection. And if they were originated and renewed He would not have perfection. And not having perfection is imperfection —and Allâh, the High, the Great, is exalted above that!

100. FOURTH, OCULAR VISION (ru'ya) OF THE MOST HIGH IS IMPOSSIBLE, BECAUSE EVERYTHING WHICH CAN BE SEEN POSSESSES DIRECTION. FOR IT IS OF NECESSITY EITHER OPPOSITE TO ONE, OR ELSE IT IS LIKE SOMETHING OPPOSITE. THEN HE WOULD BE A BODY, AND THAT IS IMPOSSIBLE. AND

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IN THE WORD OF THE MOST HIGH (to Moses) THOU SHALT NOT SEE ME (7: 139)—AND lan IS THE ETERNAL NEGATIVE. 101. The philosophers and the Mu'tazilites hold that the vision of Him with the eye is impossible, because of his being incorporeal (mujarrad.) And the Anthropomorphists (mujassima) and Karrâmites hold that it is possible to see Him with the eye face to face. And the Ash'arites believe that God is incorporeal, and (yet) say that the vision of Him is valid,b contrary to the opinion of all sane men. And some of the Ash'arites say, "By vision we do not mean the impression (ințibâ') (of the object on the optic nerve) or the issuing of rays, but the state which is acquired from the vision of an object after the acquisition of the knowledge (‘ilm) of it." And others of them say that the meaning of the vision of Him is that He uncovers Himself (yankashifu) to believing creatures on the Last Day like the uncovering of a visible full moon. And the reality is that if they mean by that a complete manifestation (al-kashfu't-tâmm), then that is admitted, for on the Day of Resurrection perfect knowledge (al-ma'rifa) will become necessary (ḍarûrî). Otherwise it cannot be conceived except as ocular vision, and that is false both by reason and tradition. 102. (1) It is false by reason, because if He be visible He must be in a direction, and therefore be a body, which is false, as has been previously shown. For every visible thing is either opposite, or is like something opposite (fî ḥukmi'lmuqâbil), as the image in a mirror, and that is necessarily true. And everything opposite or like an opposite is in a direction. Hence if the Most High Creator be visible He must be in a direction, which is false. (2) And it is also false by tradition, for several reasons: (a) First, when Moses asked for a vision (of Him) he received the answer, "Thou shalt not see me " (7:139), and lan is the eternal negative" according to the lexicographers. And since Moses did not see Him, certainly no one else has seen Him. (b) Second, in the word Allâh, "No vision taketh in Him, but He taketh in all vision " (6: 103). He describes Himself by denying that eyes can perceive Him. Hence proving that He is visible is a fault. (3) Third, He made a great matter of their seeking for a vision of Himself,

and attached blame to it, and threatened (the guilty), saying, “But a greater thing than this did they ask of Moses ! for they said, 'Show us Allâh plainly!' and for this their wickedness did the fire-storm lay hold on them" (4: 152). "They who look not forward to meet us say, 'If the angels be not sent down to us, or unless we behold our Lord . . .' Ah! they are proud of heart, and exceed with great excess!" (21: 22).

103. FIFTH, A PARTNER (ash-sharîk) IS DENIED TO HIM, BECAUSE OF TRADITION; AND BECAUSE OF THEIR HINDERING ONE ANOTHER (in case of a plurality of deities), IN WHICH CASE THE ORDERLINESS OF EXISTENCE WOULD BE DESTROYED; AND BECAUSE HE WOULD HAVE TO BE COMPOUNDED, SINCE TWO NECESSARIES WOULD SHARE IN BEING NECESSARILY EXISTENT, IN WHICH CASE THERE WOULD HAVE TO BE A DISTINGUISHER (mâ'iz).

104. Scholastic theologians and philosophers have agreed in denying to the Most Migh a partner, for several reasons: (1) First, the traditional proofs which point to this, and also the agreement of the prophets, which is here a proof, because their veracity does not rest on their affirmation of the Unity. (2) Second, the proof of the scholastic theologians, which is called "the proof of hindrance." And that is taken from the word of the Most High, "Had there been in either heaven or earth gods beside Allâh, both surely had gone to ruin " (21:22). And this means that if He had a partner, the destruction of the orderliness of existence would follow of necessity, and that is false. In explanation of this-if the will of one of the two (gods) came into connection with the production of a moving body, then undoubtedly it is possible for the other god to will its rest, or it is not: (a) If it is possible, then undoubtedly either the will of both will be carried out in which case opposites would have to be reconciled; or else the will of neither of them will be carried out-in which case the body would have neither motion nor rest; or the will of (only) one of them will be carried out, in which case two evils will result: (a) first, preponderance (tarjîḥ) without any one to give preponderance, and (B) second, the impotence of the other (god). (b) If it is not possible for the other god to will its rest, then it necessarily

follows that he is impotent. For there is no hindrance except the connection of the will of that other god (with the body). But impotence on the part of gods is false, and preponderance without one to give preponderance is impossible. Hence the destruction of the orderliness of existence would be necessary, and that also is impossible.

105. (3) Third, the proof of the philosophers and its explanation. If there be in existence a Necessarily Existent, then both of the gods must be possible existence. For in this case they would both share in being necessarily existent. And undoubtedly they can either be distinguished from one another or they cannot. For if they cannot be distinguished they do not acquire duality. And if they can be distinguished, it is necessary that each one of the two be compounded of that in which they are one, and that by which they are distinguished. And every compounded thing is possible existence. Hence they both are possible existences, and this was contrary (to our premises).

106. SIXTH, IDEAS (maʼânî) AND STATES (aḥwâl) ARE DENIED TO THE MOST HIGH. BECAUSE IF HE WERE POWERFUL BY HIS

POWER AND KNOWING BY HIS KNOWLEDGE AND SO FORTH HE

WOULD HAVE NEED IN HIS QUALITIES OF THAT IDEA. THEN HE WOULD BE POSSIBLE EXISTENCE, AND THAT IS CONTRARY (to our premises).

107. The Ash'arites hold that the Most High is Powerful by His Power and Knowing by His Knowledge and Living by His Life, and so for all His other qualities, and that these are prior ideas in addition to His essence and inhering in it." And the Bahshamiya say that the Most High is equal to (musâwî) any other essence, and is distinguished from other essences by a state (ḥâla) which is called godhood (ulûhiyya). And this state produces in Him four states: being powerful, knowing, being alive, and existing. And state (hâl) according to them is a quality belonging to an entity (mawjûd), and existence (wujûd) and non-existence ('adam) do not possess this quality. And they say that the Most High Creator is Powerful in relation to (bi-i'tibâr) that state of being powerful

and Knowing in relation to that state of knowing, and so for the other qualities. And the fallacy of this contention is necessary (ḍarûrî), for a thing is either an entity or a nonentity, since there is no middle ground.

108. And the philosophers and the investigators (muḥaqqiqûn) among the scholastic theologians say that the Most High is Powerful by His essence, and so for the other qualities. And when we say, "the essence is Knowing and is Powerful," what is imagined to be an addition (zâ'ida) is relative and is addition only in the mind, not objectively. And this is the reality in our opinion, because if He were Powerful by His Power (qudra) or state of being powerful (qâdiriyya), and Knowing by His Knowledge ('ilm) or state of knowing ('âlimiyya), and so forth, then it would follow that the Necessary would have need of something else in His qualities. Because these ideas and states are distinct from His essence absolutely. And everything which is in need of something else is possible existence. And if His qualities be in addition to His essence, then He would be possible existence, which is contrary to our premises.

109. SEVENTH, THE MOST HIGH IS SELF-SUFFICIENT (ghaniyy) AND NOT IN NEED, FOR THE NECESSITY OF HIS EXISTENCE APART FROM ANYTHING ELSE REQUIRES THAT HE BE WITHOUT need OF ANYTHING ELSE, AND THAT EVERYTHING BESIDES HIM BE IN NEED OF HIM.

110. Among His negative qualities is His being absolutely self-sufficient and not in need of another, neither in His essence nor in His qualities. For the necessity of His existence, which has been established for Him, requires His being absolutely without need as regards all things beside Himself. For if He were in need (muḥtâj) He would have to want (iftaqara) something, and then He would be possible existence, and Allâh is exalted above that! Rather the Creator, whose greatness is glorious, is without need of anything besides Himself. And everything (that is) is an emanation (rashḥa— oozing) amongst the emanations of His existence, and a mote (dharra) amongst the motes in the rays of his munificence.