BOOK II. The veneration of some of the Vaishnava sectarians for their mendicant directors is carried to an almost incredible pitch. In Bengal, some of them consider their spiritual guide as of superior importance, and entitled to greater regard than their deity himself.* The want of a common head to the Hindú religion accounts for the lax discipline of many orders, and the total absence of rules among single Beirágis and Yógis, and such lawless assemblages as those formed by the military Nágas. The same circumstance has preserved the independence of these orders, and prevented their falling, like the monks of Europe, under the authority of the ecclesiastical body; and to their independence is to be ascribed the want of concord between them and the sacerdotal class. The rivalry thus engendered might have produced more serious effects; but the influence which the Bramins derive from their possession of the literature and law of their nation has had an operation on the orders, as it has on other Hindús; and, in recognising the Code of Menu, and the religious traditions of their country, they could not withhold their acknowledgment of the high station to which the class had raised itself by the authority of those writings. * Professor Wilson, Asiatic Researches, vol. xvi. p. 119. The above account is chiefly from Professor Wilson's essay in vols. xvi. and xvii. of the Asiatic Researches; with some particulars from Ward's Hindoos, and some from the account of the Gosáyens in the Appendix to Steele's Summary. See Appendix, on "Changes in Cast." CHAP. II. CHANGES IN THE GOVERNMENT. THE modern Hindú government differs from that described by Menu, less in consequence of any deliberate alterations, than of a relaxation of the systematic form which was recommended by the old lawgiver, and which, perhaps, was at no time exactly conformed to in the actual practice of any state. CHAP. II. stration. The chief has no longer a fixed number of mi- Admininisters and a regular council. He has naturally some heads of departments, and occasionally consults them and his prime minister, on matters affecting the peculiar province of each. divisions. Traces of all the revenue divisions of Menu*, Revenue under lords of 10 towns, lords of 100, and lords of 1000 towns, are still to be found, especially in the Deckan; but the only one which remains entire is that called Perganneh, which answers to the lordship of 100 towns. Even the officers of the old system are still kept up in those divisions, and receive a remuneration in lands and fees; but they * As many of the notes on this account of the revenue system are long, and not required for a general understanding of the subject, I have thought it best to place them in an Appendix, to which reference will be made by letters of the alphabet. BOOK II. Description of a are no longer the active agents of the government, and are only employed to keep the records of all matters connected with land. (A) It is generally supposed that these officers fell into disuse after the Mahometan conquest; but as, like every thing Hindú, they became hereditary, and liable to division among heirs, the sovereign, Hindú as well as Mussulman, must have felt their inadequacy to fulfil the objects they were designed for, and the necessity of replacing them by officers of his own choosing, on whom he could rely. At present, even Hindú territories are divided into governments of various extent, which are again divided and subdivided, as convenience requires. The King names the governors of the great divisions, and the governor chooses his own deputies for those subordinate. The governor unites all the functions of administration; there being no longer military divisions as in Menu's time; and no courts of justice, but at the capital (if there). But among all these changes, the townships remain entire, and are the indestructible atoms, from an aggregate of which the most extensive Indian empires are composed. A township is a compact piece of land, varying township. in extent, inhabited by a single community. The boundaries are accurately defined and jealously guarded. The lands may be of all descriptions; those actually under cultivation and those neglected; arable lands never yet cultivated; and land II. which is altogether incapable of cultivation. These CHAP. lands are divided into portions, the boundaries of which are as carefully marked as those of the township; and the names, qualities, extent, and proprietors of which are minutely entered in the records of the community. The inhabitants are all assembled in a village within the limits, which in many parts of India is fortified, or protected by a little castle or citadel. Each township conducts its own internal affairs. Its privileges. It levies on its members the revenue due to the state; and is collectively responsible for the payment of the full amount. It manages its police, and is answerable for any property plundered within its limits. It administers justice to its own members, as far as punishing small offences, and deciding disputes in the first instance. It taxes itself, to provide funds for its internal expenses; such as repairs of the walls and temple, and the cost of public sacrifices and charities, as well as of some ceremonies and amusements on festivals. It is provided with the requisite officers for conducting all those duties, and with various others adapted to the wants of the inhabitants; and, though entirely subject to the general government, is in many respects an organised commonwealth, complete within itself. This independence, and its concomitant privileges, though often violated by the government, are never denied: they afford some little protection against a tyrannical ruler, BOOK and maintain order within their own limits, even when the general government has been dissolved. II. I quote the following extract from a minute of Sir Charles Metcalfe, as well for the force of his language as the weight of his authority. "The village communities are little republics, having nearly every thing they can want within themselves, and almost independent of any foreign relations. They seem to last where nothing else lasts. Dynasty after dynasty tumbles down; revolution succeeds to revolution; Hindoo, Patan, Mogul, Mahratta, Sik, English, are all masters in turn; but the village community remains the same. In times of trouble they arm and fortify themselves an hostile army passes through the country : the village communities collect their cattle within their walls, and let the enemy pass unprovoked. If plunder and devastation be directed against themselves, and the force employed be irresistible, they flee to friendly villages at a distance; but, when the storm has passed over, they return and resume their occupations. If a country remain for a series of years the scene of continued pillage and massacre, so that the villages cannot be inhabited, the scattered villagers nevertheless return whenever the power of peaceable possession revives. A generation may pass away, but the succeeding generation will return. The sons will take the places of their fathers; the same site for the village, the same positions for the houses, the same lands will be reoccupied by the descendants of |