of Semitic speech when the same combination of consonants might be used either as noun or verb: gradually differences of meaning were introduced, firstly by means of nuances of vowel-sounds, or by reduplication of the radicals, and afterwards by additional elements. However, it will be convenient to adhere to the usual custom of Semitic grammars, and to treat of "verbal nouns ' "" as derivatives.

With three radicals we have:

From Kal

(1.) sacan, nomen permanentis, to be distinguished from infinitive sacân; e.g. zacaru "monument," casadu acquisition," sadharu "writing," alapu "ox," tsalamu "image," naharu "river"; as adjectives karadu "warlike," gasaru “bold."

(2.) sacin, nomen permanentis, to be distinguished from the nomen

agentis sâcin; e.g. zacipu "cross," amilu "man"; adjectives namiru " bright," malicu "king," cabidu "heavy," labiru or

laberu "old."

(3.) sacun, nomen permanentis, to be distinguished from sacûn, the nomen mutati; e.g. batulu "young man ; adjectives marutsu difficult," ru'uku for rahuku “distant," casusu "servant." (4.) sicin, a segholate; e.g. sidhiru "a writing," sipicu "a heap," episu "a work," gimiru " the whole," cisid-tu "spoils "; adjective zikhiru "small."

(5.) sican, nomen permanentis; e.g. cisadu "presence"; adjective zicaru "manly."

(6.) sicun, nomen mutati; e.g. zicuru "memorial," cisudu "a captive"; adjective emuku “deep.”

(7.) sucun, nomen permanentis; e.g. sulukhu "citadel," cupuru "bitumen," cududu "gem."

(8.) sucan, nomen permanentis; suparu "measure," khuratsu "gold"; adjective pumalu “strong."

(9.) sucin, nomen permanentis; e.g. buridu "a pie" (bird).

1 Comparative grammar, however, shows that in Semitic the verb presupposes the noun; just as in Aryan the noun pre-supposes the verb., 2 These three last forms are identical with the Hebrew p, p, Sip, formed after the infinitive, and therefore dissimilar from the forma

(10.) sacân, nomen mutationis; e.g. tsabātu “to take,” rakhātsu “to inundate," paraccu for parācu "to rule," canāsu "submission." (11.) sicīn, nomen mutationis; e.g. nicīśu “to cut off," episu “to make."

(12.) sucun, nomen mutationis; e.g. sumūru “to keep."

(13.) sâcin, nomen agentis; e.g. mālicu “ruling,” kā‘isu “snaring,” dāciku "governing," alicu "going," māgiru "loving."

(14.) sacin, nomen mutati; e.g. dalīkhu “troubled."

(15.) sacûn, nomen mutati; e.g. darūmu “a dwelling."

From Pael (expressing intensiveness)—

(1.) saccan, nomen permanentis; e.g. gammalu “camel;” adjective karradu "warlike."

(2.) siccan, sican, nomen mutantis; e.g. limmanu (limanu) “injuring,” zicaru (for ziccaru) "remembering.”

(3.) siccun, sicun, nomen mutati; e.g. limmunu (limunu) “ injured.” (4.) siccin, nomen permanentis; e.g. citstsilli “royal.”

From Pael Passive

(1.) succan, sucan; e.g. ‘ummanu "army."

(2.) succun, sucun; e.g. gurunu (gurrunu) “a heap,” supucu a heap," cussu "a throne"; cutummu "gilded"; and the infinitives tsukhkhuru, sullumu, etc.

From Palel

(1.) sacanan, nomen permanentis; e.g. adannu "mighty."

(2.) sacunun, nomen mutati; e.g. agurru "cement."

(3.) sicinin, nomen mutationis; e.g. cidinnu “ordinance," citirru "cornice."

(4.) sucunun, nomen mutationis; e.g. cudurru "landmark"; sulummu "alliance."

(5.) sacarin, nomen permanentis; e.g. namriru “bright."

From Iphteal, Iphtaal—

(1.) sitcun, nomen permanentis; e.g. kitrubu "a meeting," etubu "witness"; adjective pitkudu "good"; also infinitives, as sitlumu "to perfect."

tion of sacan, sacin, and sacun from sacnacu. They express a permanent state after change, and therefore may perhaps be better termed nomina mutati.

(2.) sitcun (Iphtaal), nomen mutati; e.g. citmusa "stored."
(3.) satcun, nomen mutati; e.g. lat busu covered," latcu

king."

66

(4.) sitcin, nomen mutati; e.g. etpisu "made."

"made

(5.) sitcan, nomen permanentis; e.g. citmas(tu) “a gathering;" adjective, gitmalu "benefactor."

From Shaphel

(1.) sascan, nomen permanentis; e.g. sapsaku "opening," satsū "

pulsion."

From Shaphel Passive

ex

(1.) suscun, nomen mutationis; e.g. sumcutu "a slaughter," surbu 66 greatness," ," and the usual infinitives sulburu "preservation," sundulu "protection," susmuru "guard," etc.

From Niphal

(1.) nascan, nomen permanentis; e.g. nabkharu "collected," naramu "chosen," namratsu "difficult."

(2.) nascân, nomen mutationis; e.g. napdhāru "to defend." (3.) nascin, nomen permanentis; e.g. nabnitu “offspring." (4.) niscin, nomen mutati; e.g. nemiku "deep," "learned." (5.) niscan, nomen mutati; e.g. niclalu "a completion." (6.) nuscan, nomen mutati; e.g. numkharu "the receipt." (7.) nasacin, nomen permanentis; e.g. nadannu " strengthened," naparcu "diminished."

From papel and pilpel we have gigune "defences" (†), giguru "copulative" (1), dandannu, "very powerful," durdaru, "great age." Verbs and have curious derived forms which repeat the second radical; e.g. liliccu "a going," lillidu (pael) "a birth," dadmi "men" (D), babilat "bringing" (of water, ), papakhu "shrine” (N).

From defective verbs we get similar formations. In concave verbs, except in the participle active Kal, the vowel of the first radical was assimilated to that of the second; e.g. ru'uku for ra'uku (p, px), miru “offspring" for maʻiru. In

Pael we have a nomen mutati saccin; e.g. mi'iru “offspring" for ma❝iru. Verbs with e for second radical often take h instead; thus we have bahlatu by the side of belatu. Verbs ', as in Hebrew, drop the first syllable in sacin; e.g. sahu'u "summit" (from NV)). So sascan appears as sass'u "spoil" (N). In verbs the initial radical was dropped in sacan, sicin, and sicîn, sucun, sacin (but not sacîn), and siccin; e.g. radu "servant" (7′), ridu, rittu for rid(a)tu foot," rudu "chariot," littu (for lidtu) "offspring," and lidîtu, lidu (but ilittuv), li‘idu or li'itu. In other cases the initial vowel is always a; e.g. ardatu "service," atsu “ going." The same verbs give us also such forms as lida'atu (from the infinitive), littutu (palel). In Niphal the forms are nullatu "height" (nuscan) and nebiru "passage" (niscin). The Pael Passive is ubburu "ford," with the second radical doubled according to rule. In verbs yy the second radical is doubled before a case-ending: otherwise only the first two radicals are expressed; e.g. sar but sarru, lib but libbu, 'um but 'ummu. Pilpel generally becomes papel in Assyrian, as kakkadu=pp, caccabu―i (9). Verbs

а

assimilate their last vowel to the case-ending; thus pu'u, pi'i, pa'a.

Besides these inner and more primitive formations, we have also, as in the cognate languages, external formations created by the broken-down roots m, t, n, and an initial vowel.

The prefix m (see p. 59) denotes the instrument, action, or place; e.g. manzazu a bulwark" (" anything fixed"), marsitu a heritage," mandattu "tribute" ("what is given”), miscunu “dwelling,” midduku “slaughter" (PN),

where a has been weakened to i, as is often the case in Hebrew. Its use in forming the present participles of the verb has already been considered.

Nis used both as prefix and as suffix. As a prefix it is to be referred to Niphal (see p. 77). As an affix it must be carefully distinguished from the plural, with which it may easily be confounded. The usual form is ānu, like Arabic ănun for adjectives, or án and on in Hebrew. Originally it would seem to have been amu (comp. Dy and D). In this case its origin would have been the same as that of the mimmation. Besides anu, we have also inu (and even innu for inu), more especially in adjectives. It builds abstracts. and adjectives used as substantives: e.g. lisānu “tongue,' kirbānu " an offering," bunanu "image," almanatu "widow," ristānu "first-born," sildhānu "king," elinitu "high," terdinnu "a descending." -Unu, as in Hebrew, is rare we find dilunu by the side of dilutu, and agunu "crown," by the side of agu.

T inserted has already been noticed. Of a different origin is t affixed to build abstracts, which must be referred to the same source as the feminine termination. This is always utu, as in malcutu "kingdom," sarrutu "royalty," belutu “lordship," ristanutu "headship." These feminine abstracts must be distinguished from the masculine plurals in utu; and they never admit the plural. There is also another rare feminine

1 Possibly, however, considering the long ā, it is a plural form, used to express an abstract singular, like neuter plurals in Aryan languages. This is borne out by forms like saniyānu, "for the second time." In Hebrew an has been changed into ôn (Ewald, Gramm., § 341, who refers it to the demonstrative an(nu)); so 'anochi for anacu, etc. Compare the feminine abstracts in -utu by the side of the plurals in -utu. The plural -ānu, it must be remembered, was indifferently masculine or feminine.