with the wall-work inside. the clerestory windows.

Fig. 1185. is the jamb mouldings of the upper range, or These are all reduced from Cottingham's work on this building, and are, to some extent, shown in the interior elevation of the bay, given in fig. 1325.

The section of the jambs to the windows of the clerestory at Winchester Cathedral is given in fig. 1303.; to the windows of King's College Chapel, Cambridge, in fig. 1312.; to those of St. George's Chapel, Windsor, in fig. 1316.; and to those in the clerestory at Amiens Cathedral, in fig. 1329.

The arch planes worked in the same buildings, have been placed on pages 971, 972., and 973., while the series of mouldings to the arches of Henry VII.'s Chapel will be found very poor in comparison, as may be observed in fig. 1325.

Fig. 1185.

HENRY VIL'S CHAPEL.

SECT. XIV.

CIRCULAR WINDOWS.

The large circular windows so frequently seen in the transepts of churches, and sometimes at the west ends of them, and going by the general name of rose windows, seem to have originated from the oculi with which the tympana of the ancient basilica were pierced, and which are still observable in monuments of the 11th century. For the study of this species of window the edifices of France furnish the most abundant means, many of them being of exquisite composition, and in our opinion far surpassing any else. where to be seen. Many of these, from Rouen, Beauvais, and Amiens, will be found illustrated in the following chapter of this work.

It is scarcely previous to the 12th century that they can be fairly called rose windows; before that period they are more properly denominated wheel windows, the radiating mullions resembling the spokes of a wheel and being formed of small columns regularly furnished with bases and capitals, and connected at top by semicircular arches or by trefoils. By many the more decorated circular window has been called the marigold window, but we scarcely know why that should have been done. The rose windows are used in gables, but their dimensions are then generally smaller and they are often enclosed in segmental curves whose versed sines form an equilateral triangle or a segmental square.

An early specimen of the wheel window is in Barfreston Church (fig. 180.), wherein it is manifestly later than the other parts of the front. The example from Patrixbourne Church, Kent (fig. 1186.), is a curious

and early example of the wheel window; herein, and Fig. 1186.

PATRIXBOURNE.

indeed in all the minor examples, a single order of columns is disposed round the centre;

but in the south transept at York Cathedral we have a noble instance of this species (fig 1187.)-a double order of columns being employed, connected by foliation above the capitals of the columns; this example is of the 13th century. As the early style came in, the columns would of course give place to the mullion, as in the elegant specimen from St. David's, shown in fig. 1188. The two following examples (figs. 1189. and 1190.) from. Westminster, and Winchester Palace, Southwark, are both of the 14th century. The first

is not the original window, but we have reason to believe it was accurately remade from the original one. The latter is a most elegant arrangement flowing from the continued sides of the central hexagon, and consequently forming a series of equilateral triangles decorated with foliation. It was placed in the gable of the great hall of the palace, which hall was spanned by a timber roof of very beautiful and ingenious construction, a few years since destroyed by fire, after which the wall containing the window was taken down.

During the period of the three last examples in this country, the French were making rapid strides towards that era in which their flamboyant was to be stifled and extinguished by the introduction of the renaissance style, about which we have already submitted some remarks, and produced some examples. In the church of St. Ouen, at Rouen, the circular window (fig. 1191.), middle of the 14th century, exhibits the extraordinary difference between French and English examples of the same date. Beautiful as many of the English examples undoubtedly are, we know of none that is equal to this for the easy and elegant flow of the tracery composing it. The leading points it will be seen are dependent on the hexagon, but, those determined, it appears to branch off from the centre with unchecked luxuriance, preserving, nevertheless, a purity in its forms quite in character with the exquisite edifice it assists to light. The details of this window may be advantageously studied in Pugin's Antiquities of Normandy, and in the larger woodcut given in the subsequent chapter.

Fig. 1191.

Besides these examples of eircular windows, others will be found of varying patterns, forming the centre pieces in the heads of large windows, as at the churches of Easby, Howden, Wellingborough, and at St. Alban's Abbey.

SECT. XV

TRACERY OF WINDOWS.

As the perpendicularity of the style changed, at the beginning of the 13th century, from that which might be termed horizontal, so did the comparatively rude and clumsy form of its ornament assume a lightness founded on a close observation of nature. Its sculpture is endowed with life, and its aspiring forms are closely connected with the general outlines bounding the masses. The models used for decoration are selected from the forest and the meadow. Among the flowers used for the angular decorations of pinnacles and spires

on crockets, and in similar situations, an ornament very much resembling the Cypripedium calceolus, or lady's slipper, and the iris, are of constant occurrence. The former plant, however, appears to be found only in the woods in the north of England, and now, at any rate, it is very rare.

These models, however, though closely and beautifully imitated (says Ramée), are submitted to reduction within such boundaries as brought them to a regular and geometrical form. Thus is found every conceivable description of ornament brought within the limits of circles, squares, and triangles, as well as within the more varied forms of the manysided polygons; the latter, as in the marigold and rose windows, being again subject to the circumscribing circle; these polygonal subdivisions having always reference to the regulating subdivisions of the apsis, as will be further referred to in Chap. IV.

The circle obviously presents a boundary for a very extended range of objects in nature. In the vegetable world, a flower is scarcely to be found which, within it, cannot be symmetrically arranged. Its relations afford measures for its subdivisions into two, three, four, and six parts, and their multiples, by the diameter and radius alone; the last being an unit, upon which the equilateral triangle and hexagon are based; moreover, as the interior angles of every right-lined figure (Euclid, prop. 32. b. 1.), together with four right angles, are equal to twice as many right angles as the figure has

Fig 1192.

Fig. 1193.

sides, it will be immediately seen that the interior angles in the equilateral triangle, the pentagon, the hexagon, the nonagon, and the dodecagon, are divisible by the sides so as to clear the result of fractions. Thus, in the equilateral triangle, the number of degrees subtended by the sides is 60°. In the pentagon the number is 108°; in the hexagon, 120°; in the nonagon, 140°; and in the dodecagon, 150°. (See par. 1219.). Independent, therefore, of the service of the circle in construction, we are not to be surprised at

Fig. 1194.

Fig. 1195.

its being so favourite a figure in architecture, from the period at which the art was to become truly serviceable to mankind.

In respect of the pentagon (fig. 1194.), if lines be drawn from each angle so as to connect every two of its sides, the pentalpha results; a

figure in much esteem in the 13th and 14th centuries, and used among the Pythagoreans as a symbol of health, centuries and centuries before.

The heptagon and undecagon, whose interior angles are not divisible without a fraction or remainder, were rarely used by the Freemasons; an instance of either does not occur to us.

In fig.

An inspection of figs. 1192. to 1198. will show the mode of generating from the several polygons the lobes of circular windows, as also the way of obtaining the centres for the lobes in a simple and symmetrical manner. 1192. the basis of formation is the equilateral triangle, and three lobes are the result. Those of four lobes, or quatrefoils (fig. 1193.), originate from the square; and the Cruciferæ, or cruciform plants, Tetradynamia of Linnæus's system, seem to be their types in nature.

Fig. 1196.

For those of five lobes, resulting from the pentagon (fig. 1194.), types are found in the

classes Pentandria, Decandria, and Icosandria, of Linnæus. They comprise the rose, the apple, cherry, and medlar blossoms; those of the strawberry, the myrtle, and many others. For circular windows consisting of six lobes, and based on the hexagonal formation (fig. 1195.), the class Hexandria seems to furnish the type, under which are found almos all the bulbous-rooted flowers, pinks, &c. These observations might be extended to a great length; but the

Fig. 1197.

writer does not feel in-
clined to pursue the
system to the extent to
which it has been car-
ried by a German au-
thor (Metzger), who
bases the principles of
all pointed architecture
on the formations of the
mineral and vegetable
kingdoms. In fig. 1196.
the octagon is the base;
in fig. 1197. the nona-
gon; and in fig. 1198.

Fig. 1198

It was

the dodecagon. Beyond the last, the subdivision is very rarely, if ever, carried. not that all these types were selected from a mere desire of assimilating to nature the decorations of the 13th century, but it sprung from that deep impression of the utility of geometrical arrangement, which sought in the vegetable kingdom, and elsewhere, such forms as fell in with the outlines adopted. Similar formations based upon the arrangement of squares, triangles, and polygons, are exhibited in figs. 1335. to 1339., in the latter portion of this chapter, as obtained from the decorations of Amiens Cathedral.

AA!

Fig. 1199.

Fig. 1200.

Mr. Denison comments upon a particular figure in window tracery, which appears to him to be very bad, and often adopted. He calls it the "broken-backed cusp," (fig. 1199.) because it gives the feeling that it is always going to break (like fig. 1205., doorway). By it, the cusps are made a principal instead of an accessory; the proper way being to make a sub-arch at the back of the lower pair of cusps (fig. 1200.), and to thicken the trefoil above until it looks like a piece of solid stonework, and having a real bearing on each other, and capable of resisting pressure.

Few attempts have been made to point to the origin of tracery and its ramifications. As the spaces of window openings went on increasing, until at last they became gigantic, in several instances exceeding 40 feet, a construction of stone framework became absolutely necessary. This framework, as we find in examples of the early decorated period, was at first unornamented-mere pillars or mullions below, with segmental curves, crossing each other, to fill the arch. But by degrees these curves changed their character, and assumed all the infinite variety we now know under the term tracery. From great windows, this class of decoration descended to the minor parts of buildings; and at last we find that light, fragile, screen-work, to be the great depository of this kind of knowledge. Fixed geometric forms, rather than mere fancy, as the foundation of composition, are ever to be preferred as of the utmost importance to the designer, if he wishes or intends to arrive at a successful result.-Billings, Infinity of Geometric Design.

Our limited space warns us to refrain from the further elucidation of this subject; but before quitting it, we can refer to the many illustrations of the further development of 66 tracery and geometric forms," forming a portion of the PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION, treated hereafter, wherein examples are given from Westminster Abbey, Beauvais, Rouen, and other cathedrals.

B

H

To aid in the formation of tracery a perfect knowledge of practical geometrical drawing is requisite; we therefore refer the reader to that section in Book II. where, commencing at par. 1007., he will find other more useful problems that will assist him in his designs. We append another application of the problem "to inscribe a circle in a given triangle," as being one of those more generally required in circular forms, and perhaps a quicker method than those above described. If a five-lobed figure be required, as in fig. 1201., obtain the triangle A B C from the five divisions, on a base line BC at a tangent to the circle; bisect B C and join A D. Bisect the angle ABC by a line B E, and

Fig. 1201.

where it crosses the line A D, as at F, will be the centre of the required circle or lobe. A circle with the radius A F being drawn, the other centres on the lines of division. as A G, A H, &c., are readily found.

Another usual geometrical problem in tracery work consists in finding the centre of a circle placed in the head of an arch. This has been elucidated by E. W. Tarn, in the Builder for 1863, p. 221. Let A B C in fig. 1202. be an equilateral arch, and the width A B be divided into three equal portions A DEB. Let the arches DF and EG be drawn with the same radius as those of A and B, as DH. Then it is required to find the centre of the circle which shall touch the four arcs. Make EI equal to th of E B, and with the centre A and radius AI draw an arc cutting the perpendicular or centre line of the window in K; then K is the required centre, and K L the radius of the circle.

H

D

ΕΙ

Fig. 1202.

SECT. XVI.

DOORWAYS.

It is almost needless to observe that through the several changes of style the door. ways followed their several forms; our duty will, therefore, be to do little more than present the representations of four or five

examples to the notice of the reader. The Prior's entrance at Ely (fig. 187.) is a fine specimen of a highly decorated Norman doorway. The earlier Norman doorways had but little carving. They are, as in fig. 1203., generally placed within a semicircular arch, borne by columns recessed from the face of the wall, and the whole surmounted with a dripstone. In fig. 187. it will be seen that the semicircular head of the door is filled in level with the springing, and sculptured with a figure of our Saviour in a sitting attitude; his right arm is raised, and in his left is a book. What is termed the vesica piscis surrounds the composition, which is supported by an angel on each side. These representations are frequently met with in Norman doorways. Many examples are composed of a series of recesses, each spanned by semicircular arches springing from square jambs, and occupied by insu

Jated columns; though sometimes the columns are wanting and the recesses run down to