Fig. 1007.

Fig. 1008.

Fig. 1009.

considered as the sofites of architraves of the columns of the order to which the cornice belongs, and they may be decorated with guiloches, as in fig. 1010., or with frets. (See the word "Fret" in Glossary.)

2818. In the two following figures (1011. and 1012.) are given four examples of roonis which are parallelograms on the plan, and above each is a section of the compartments.

2819. As to the proportion of the cornice, it ought in rooms to be perhaps rather less than in halls, salons, and the exterior parts of a building; and if the entablature be taken at a fifth instead of one fourth of the height, and a proportional part of that fifth be taken for the cornice, it cannot be too heavy. Perhaps where columns are introduced it will be better to keep to the usual proportions. Chambers, if followed, would make the proportions still lighter than we have set them down. He says that if the rooms are adorned with an entire order, the entablature should not be more than a sixth of the height nor be less than a seventh in flat-ceiled rooms, and one sixth or one seventh in such as are coved; and that when there are neither columns nor pilasters in the decoration, but an entablature alone, its height should not be above one seventh or eighth of those heights. He further says that in rooms finished with a simple cornice it should not exceed one fifteenth nor be less than one twentieth, and that if the whole entablature be used its height should not be more than one eighth of the upright of the room. In the ceilings of staircases the cornices must be set out on the same principles; indeed in these, and in halls and other large rooms, the whole of the entablature is generally used. In vaulted ceilings and domes the panels are usually decorated with panels similar to those in figs. 1001, 1002, 1003, 1004, 1005, 1006., but in their application to domes they of course diminish as they rise towards the eye of the dome. (See 2837.)

SECT. XX.V.
PROPORTIONS OF ROOMS.

2920. The use to which rooms are appropriated, and their actual dimensions, are the principal points for consideration in adjusting the proportions of apartments. Abstractedly considered, all figures, from a square to the sesquialteral proportion, may be used for the plan. Many great masters have carried the proportion to a double square on the plan; but except the room be subdivided by a break the height is not easily proportioned to it. This objection does not however apply to long galleries which are not restricted in length,

on which Chambers remarks, “that in this case the extraordinary length renders it im possible for the eye to take in the whole extent at once, and therefore the comparison be tween the height and length can never be made."

2821. The figure of a room, too, necessarily regulates its height. If a room, for example, be coved, it should be higher than one whose ceiling is entirely flat. When the plan is square and the ceiling flat the height should not be less than four fifths of the side nor more than five sixths; but when it leaves the square and becomes parallelogramic, the height may be equal to the width. Coved rooms, however, when square, should be as high as they are broad; and when parallelograms, their height may be equal to their width, increased from one fifth to one third of the difference between the length and width.

2822. The height of galleries should be at least one and one third of their width, and at the most perhaps one and three fifths. "It is not, however," says Chambers, "always possible to observe these proportions. In dwelling-houses, the height of all the rooms on the same floor is generally the same, though their extent be different; which renders it extremely difficult in large buildings, where there are a great number of different-sized rooms, to proportion all of them well. The usual method, in buildings where beauty and magnificence are preferred to economy, is to raise the halls, salons, and galleries higher than the other rooms, by making them occupy two stories; to make the drawing-rooms or other largest rooms with flat ceilings; to cove the middle-sized ones one third, a quarter, or a fifth of their height, according as it is more or less excessive; and in the smallest apartments, where even the highest coves are not sufficient to render the proportion tolerable, it is usual to contrive mezzanines above them, which afford servants' lodging-rooms, baths, powdering-rooms," (now no longer wanted!) "wardrobes, and the like; so much the more convenient as they are near the state apartments, and of private access. The Earl of Leicester's house at Holkham is a masterpiece in this respect, as well as in many others: the distribution of the plan, in particular, deserves much commendation, and does great credit to the memory of Mr. Kent, it being exceedingly well contrived, both for state and convenience."

As

2823. In this country, the coldness of the climate, with the economy of those who build superadded, have been obstacles to developing the proper proportions of our apartments; and the consequence is, that in England we rarely see magnificence attained in them. We can point out very few rooms whose height is as great as it should be. In Italy, the rules given by Palladio and other masters, judging from their works, seem to be sevenfold in respect of lengths and breadths of rooms, namely, - 1. circular; 2. square; 3. the length equal to the diagonal of the square; 4. length equal to one third more than the square; 5. to the square and a half; 6. to the square and two thirds; or, 7. two squares full. to the height of chambers, Palladio says they are made either arched or with a plain ceiling if the latter, the height from the pavement or floor to the joists above ought to be equal to their breadth; and the chambers of the second story must be a sixth part less than them in height. The arched rooms, being those commonly adopted in the principal story, no less on account of their beauty than for the security afforded against fire, if square, are in height to be a third more than their breadth; but when the length exceeds the breadth, the height proportioned to the length and breadth together may be readily found by joining the two lines of the length and breadth into one line, which being bisected, one half will give exactly the height of the arch. Thus, let the room be 12 feet long and 6 feet wide, = 9 feet the height of the room. Another of Palladio's methods of proportioning the height to the length and breadth is, by making the length, height, and breadth in sesquialteral proportion, that is, by finding a number which has the same ratio to the breadth as the length has to it. This is found by multiplying the length and breadth together, and taking the square root of the product for the height. Thus, supposing the length 9 and the breadth 4, the height of the arch will be √9 x 4=6, the height required; the number 6 being contained as many times in 9 as 4 is in 6.

12+6
2

2824. The same author gives still another method, as follows: — Let the height be assumed as found by the first rule (=9), and the length and breadth, as before, 12 and 6. Multiply the length by the breadth, and divide the product by the height assumed; then =8 for the height, which is more than the second rule gives, and less than the first.

12x6

9

1

CHAP. II.

PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION.

SECT. I.

GENERAL REMARKS.

2825. In undertaking to point out some of the mechanical methods of obtaining proportions of length, breadth, and height, in plans and elevations, as traceable upon geometrie representations of the design, we would recall the reader's attention to the admirable remarks on the true nature of proportion made by the author of this Encyclopædia in Sect. I of the first chapter in this book.

2826. But, however just those remarks may be, they do not, any more than any of the mechanical means, result in success in the building as executed and seen in perspective. The ever varying relation between the sides of a mass, such as a Greek temple, can hardly be supposed to be at every moment equally beautiful in proportion, and the finest mediæval structure equally owes the satisfactory effect which it produces to the spectator's judicious choice of his point of view. Some very judicious observations on the rectification of proportions according to the position of the spectator are given by James Pennethorne, in his Elements and Mathematical Principles of the Greek Architects, 8vo., London, 1844.

2827. Before the probable effect in execution of an intended design can be ascertained, the designer must have well mastered the routine of drawing, as explained in the several sections on DRAWING, PERSPECTIVE, and SHADOWS, given in this work. He should likewise have familiarised himself with the varying effects of the changes resulting from points of view and alteration of light upon some building of which he may have opportunities to make studies in the usual GEOMETRIC DRAWINGS (explained 2490a. et seq.), so as to become imbued with that sense of general fitness of parts to the whole, which is meant by having the "compasses in one's eye."

2828-2837. The simpler such a building may be, the easier it will be at first to begin to acquire the power of anticipating correctly the effect in a design if it be executed: that power can then be applied to designs of more complicated character resulting from the various methods, which we are about to point out, of obtaining proportions.

SECT. II.

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL COMBINATIONS OF BUILDINGS.

2838. The different elements of a building are ranged by the side of or above each other, and in designing an edifice both these combinations must be kept in mind, though in the study of the subject, in order to lighten the labour, they may be separately considered. The two species of disposition are horizontal, as in plans, and vertical, as in sections and elevations.

2839. As respects horizontal disposition of the elements of a fabric, beginning with columns, their distance in the same edifice should be equal, but that distance may be varied as circumstances require. In buildings of small importance, the number is reduced as much as possible, on the score of economy, by increasing the distance between them; but in public buildings they should be introduced in greater number, as contributing to the greater solidity of the edifice by affording a larger number of points of support. They ought not, however, to be at all introduced except for the formation of porticoes, galleries, and the like subdivisions. The least distance at which they can be properly placed from a wall is that which they are apart from one another. This distance, indeed, suits well enough when the columns are moderately wide apart; but when the intercolumniations are small compared with their height and the diameter of the columns, their distance from the walls in porticoes must be increased, otherwise these would be much too narrow for their height, affording shelter neither from the sun's rays nor from the rain. On this account, under such circumstances, they may be set from the walls two or three times the distance between the axes of the columns. From this arrangement will result an agreeable and suitable proportion between the parts.

2840 The ceiling of a portico may be level with the under side of the architrave, or it

may be sunk the depth of the architrave, which may return in a direction towards the walls, thus forming sunk panels in the ceiling, or the sinking of the panels may be as much as the whole height of the entablature, whose mouldings should then be carried round them. When several ranks of columns occur in a portico the central part is sometimes vaulted, the two central columns of the width being omitted. The method of disposing pilasters ir respect of their diminution has been treated of in a former part of this work. (2671, et seq.) 2841. The exterior walls which enclose the building should run as much as possible in straight continued lines from one angle to another; a straight line being the shortest that can be drawn. The internal walls, which serve for subdividing the building into its several apartments, should, as much as may be, extend from one side to the opposite one. Where they are intercepted by openings, they should be connected again above by lintels or other

means.

2842. In fig. 1013. is shown the method of forming a plan or horizontal distribution, and combining it with the vertical distribution in the section and elevation. The thing is so simple that it can hardly want explanation. The equidistant parallel axes being drawn and cut at right angles by similarly equidistant ones, the walls, according to the required accommodations, are placed centrally upon the axes; and the columns, pilasters, &c. upon the intersections of the axes. The doors, windows, niches, and the like are then placed centrally in the interaxes, which must be bisected for that purpose. Above and below the horizontal combination the section and plan are to be drawn. These vertical combinations are infinite, and from every plan many sections and elevations may be formed. The figure exhibits a building of one story only, with a central apartment occupying the height of two stories. But on the same plan a building of two or more stories may be designed. These may have two tiers of porticoes, one above the other, or one only on the ground story, forming by its covering a terrace on the first floor; or a portico might receive on its columns the walls of the next story, and thus become recessed from the main front. So, again, the stories may be equal in height, or of different heights, as circumstances may require. The most usual practice is, above a basement to make the succeeding story higher; but above a principal floor the height of succeeding ones is diminished. The method of placing orders above orders does not require that any addition should be made to what has been said on that subject in Chap. I. Sect. 11. of this Book, and by the same methods arcades over arcades may be conducted.

2843. Not the least important of the advantages resulting from the method of designing just submitted to the reader is the certain symmetry it produces, and the prevention, by the use of these interaxal lines on each floor, of the architect falling into the error of false bearings, than which a greater or more dangerous fault cannot be committed, more especially in public buildings. The subterfuge for avoiding the consequence of false bearings is now a resort to cast iron, a material beneficially enough employed in buildings of inferior rank; but in those of the first class, wherein every part should have a proper point of support, it is a practice not to be tolerated. Neither should the student ever lose sight, in respect of the ties he employs in a building, of the admirable observation of Vignola on the ties and chains proposed by Tibaldi, in his design for the baptistery at Milan: "Che le fabbriche non si hanno da sostenere colle stringhe; "- Buildings must not depend on ties for their stability. The foregoing figure is from Durand's Precis d'Architecture. We now submit, in fig. 1018., an illustration of the principles of interaxal division Fig. 1013. from the celebrated and exquisite Villa Capra, near Vicenza, by Palladio, wherein it will be seen, on comparing the result with what has actually been executed, how little the design varies from it. It will from this also be seen how entirely and inseparably connected with

the horizontal are the vertical combinations in the sec. tion and elevation, the voids falling over voids, and the solids over solids. Whatever the extent of the building, if it is to be regular and symmetrical in its composition, the principles are applicable, and that even in buildings where no columns are used; for, supposing them to exist, and setting out the design as though they did exist, the design will prove to be well proporticred when they are removed. The full application of the principles in question will be seen in the works of Durand, the Précis and Cours d' Architecture, which we have used freely; and where we have had the misfortune to differ from that author, we have not adopted him.

2844. The student can scarcely conceive the infinite number of combinations whereof every design is susceptible by the employment of the interaxal system here brought under his notice; neither, until he has tested it in many cases, will he believe the great mastery in design which he will acquire by its use. In the temples and other public buildings of the an cients, it requires no argument to prove that it was the vital principle of their operations, and in the courts, cavædia, &c. of their private buildings it is sufficiently obvious that it must have been extensively used. That its use in the buildings of those who are called the Gothic architects of the middle ages was universal, a glance at them will be sufficient to prove. The system of triangles which appears to have had an influence on the proportions of the early cathedrals may be traced to the same source (see the early translation of Vitruvius by Cæsar Cesarianus), and indeed, followed up to that source, would end in the principle contended for.

2845. It is impossible for us to prove that the interaxal system was that upon which the revivers of our art produced the astonishing examples many whereof are exhibited in our First Book; neither can we venture to assert that it was that upon which our great master Palladio designed the example above given, unquestionably one of his most elegant works; but, to say the least of the coincidence which has been proved between the actual design and the theory upon which it appears to have been founded, it is a very curious, and, if not true, a most extraordinary circumstance. Our belief, however, is, that not only Palladio but the masters preceding him used the system in question, and that is strengthened by the mode (not strictly, we allow, analogous) in which Scamozzi, in the tenth chapter of his third book, directs the student to adopt in buildings seated on plots of ground whose sides are irregular.

hd

2846. To Durand, nevertheless, the public is greatly indebted for the instruction he has imparted to the student in his Précis d'Architecture more especially, and we regret that in our own country the art is treated by its professors too much in the manner of a trade, and that the scramble after commissions has prevented their occupation upon works similar to those which have engaged the attention of professors on the continent. The fault, however, is perhaps not, after all, so much attributable to them as to a government, whatever the party in power, till within the last five years (nay perchance even now) totally indifferent to the success of the fine arts, whose palmy days here were under the reign of the unfortunate Charles. Our feelings on this subject, and love for our art, betray us perchance too much into expressions unsuitable to the subject under consideration, and thereon we entreat, therefore, the patience of our readers, knowing "we have a good conscience."

Fig. 1014.

2847. Our limits preclude the further enlargement on this part of the subject, which in