is compensated for by the labour in making good. Cornices are measured by the foot superficial, and estimated according to the quantity of mouldings and enrichments they contain. Where there are more than four angles in a room, each extra one is charged at the price per foot run extra of the cornice. Stucco reveals are charged per foot run, and according to their width of 4 or 9 inches or more. Quirks, arrises, and beads by the foot run, as are margins to raised panels, small plain mouldings, &c. Enriched mouldings are measured by the foot run, and with flowers to ceilings, pateras, &c., must be considered with reference to the size and quantity of ornament; modelling may have to be charged if under 60 feet run. For some of these, papier-mâché and other materials (see 2251), which are much lighter than plaster, are coming now into general use, and from the ease and security with which they are fixed, often supersede the use of plaster ornaments. Scaffolding is charged for when the "hawk" cannot be served from the floor. 2377. PLUMBER. The work of this artificer is charged by the cwt., to which is added the labour of laying the lead. The superficies of the lead is measured, then multiplied by the weight, as 5 lb. lead, 6 lb. lead, &c., and brought into cwts. Water pipes, rainwater pipes, and funnel pipes are charged by the foot run, according to their diameter; so also are socket pipes for sinks, joints being separately paid for. Common lead pumps, with iron work, including bucket, sucker, &c., at so much each; the same with hydraulic and other pumps, according to their diameters. In the same manner are charged waterclosets, basins, air traps, washers and plugs, spindle valves, stop-cocks, ball-cocks, &c. (See 2212 et seq.) By the increase of manufacturers of sanitary appliances these are now priced at per article. 2378. GLAZIER. The work of the glazier is measured and estimated by the superficial foot, according to the speciality as well as the quality of the glass used; it is always measured between the rebates. (See 2225 et seq.) Stained and painted glass are usually taken at agreed prices. 2379. PAINTER. In the measurement and estimation of painting, the superficial quantity is taken, allowing all edges, sinkings, and girths as they appear. When work is cut in on both edges it is taken by the foot run. The quantity of feet is reduced to yards, by which painting is charged for in large quantities. In taking iron railing, the two sides are measured as flat work; but if it be full of ornament, once and a half, or twice, is taken for each side. Sash frames are taken each, and sash squares by the dozen. On gilding we have already spoken in Sect. XII. (2277 et seq.) Cornices, reveals to windows and doors, strings, window sills, water trunks and gutters, handrails, newels, &c, are taken by the foot run, Many small articles by the piece. Plain and enriched cornices by the foot run, according to the quantity of work in them. Work done from a ladder is paid for extra. The price of painter's work greatly depends on the purity of the materials employed, as oil, turpentine, &c., as well as on the quality and the number of times over that the work is painted; the labour is usually considered as one-third of the price charged. Scarcely any trade varies so greatly. Imitations of woods and marbles are charged according to the artistic treatment and the labour employed on them, and the quality of the varnish used. 2380. PAPERHANCER. In common papers the price used to be settled according to the colours or quantity of blocks used in printing the pattern. Now the price appears to depend on the sale, or fashion, of the pattern, or on the manufacturer's pleasure. Until lately the old prices were charged, with a large discount, but now the price marked by some of the leading firms is subject only to the ordinary discount to the trade. Embossed and other papers are of higher prices. These, as well as lining paper, are charged by the piece, containing 63 feet super. The hanging is charged separate, and borders, dadoes, gilt mouldings, &c. by the yard run. (See 2277c.) CHAP. IV. MEDIUM OF EXPRESSION. SECT. I. DRAWING IN GENERAL. 2981. Under this section it is not our intention to enter into the refinements of the art, but merely to make the attempt of directing the student to the first principles of a faithful representation of ordinary and familiar objects, with all their imperfections; or, in other words, of transferring to a plane surface what the artist actually sees or conceives in his mind. This power is of vital importance to the architect, and without it he is unworthy the name. 2382. The usual mode of teaching drawing now in use is, as we conceive, among the most absurd and extravagant methods of imparting instruction that can be well conceived. The learner is usually first put to copying drawings or prints, on which he is occupied for a considerable time. Much more would he learn, and much more quickly, by following the course which the following lines will prescribe. Outline is the foundation of all drawing; the alphabet of graphic art. As soon as the student has attained the use of the pencil and the pen in drawing purely geometrical figures, he is prepared to receive the rudiments of perspective. As shown in the following section, the representations of all geometrical solids is dependent upon mechanical means; and these may, if it be desirable, be shadowed truly by the methods given in Sect. III.; but what is now called free-hand drawing is the matter for our present consideration. 2383. Outline, as we have stated above, is the foundation of all drawing, the alphabet of graphic art. Every representation of an object, or series of objects, however complicated, is in reality but a set of outlines composed of straight or curved lines. The knowledge, or rather the power of forming these lines, is essential to the student, and in the same manner that he was obliged to form pothooks and hangers before he proceeded to ellipses when he was taught to write, he should begin his study of free-hand drawing by practising himself in the production of straight lines, proceeding to segments, and then to curves of contrary flexure. It is a good plan to compare the copy with the pattern; and, inasmuch as all formal diagrams that are set as patterns should be perfect, it is desirable that the standards for straight lines, segments, and contrary flexures should be drawn by the teacher himself from rulers; these rulers can be subsequently applied to the copies, and are sometimes the only evidence upon which to make a mutinous pupil conscious of his errors. The student ought not to proceed to the elliptical and oval forms until the hand, first turning one way, can draw a tolerably correct circle; and then, turning in the other direction, can make another equally good. The next step will be to acquire the power of drawing spiral lines in one direction, and of repeating them in another; which will be followed by that of drawing lines either parallel or slowly approximating. 2383a. After this, the student is sufficiently advanced to attempt to repeat all these stages with copies of a size larger or less than the patterns; and he will be ready to learn the mechanical use of chalk. This branch of his tuition needs only such examples as the prints, which have been prepared for that purpose, of purely geometrical forms: in this stage the rudiments of shadow are implanted, and the use of the brush may be acquired. 23836. The student will then be ready to learn the mode of obtaining local colour, and of blending his materials so as to obtain tints and shades of the different colours. The next steps would be to draw in chalk, in ink, or in colour, the simplest architectural ornaments, such as a chevron or an ovolo; and to proceed through a course of architectural foliage from prints. The result of such training is usually a confidence in the eye; and, what is sometimes highly important, a judgment so sound as to be able to reproduce any part of a subject that may have been destroyed. 2383c. Aptitude of the pupil must be a consideration, but in general a year of steady application may be sufficient so to imbue the mind with the grammar of architectural ornament, as to enable the hand to represent it; after which the student ought to be capable of inventing for himself. Indeed, it is only by such a course that originality in designing ornament can be obtained. The study of natural foliage, first as seen, and then as conventionalized, may be carried out at the same time. 2383d. It is very remarkable that all the inferences are false, which usually are derived from the assertion that he who can draw the human figure will be able to draw any other object that is submitted to him for representation. The few men who can faultlessly draw the human figure as they see it, may doubtlessly have eyes keen enough and hands true enough to repeat the minutest details so accurately that any comparison of a particular detail with the original shall be creditable to them; but these men have spent years in obtaining, besides delicacy of handling, that knowledge of anatomy which reminds them at every stroke of the pencil that such a muscle is in such a place, that here it overlaps another that there it dies into a bone, and that consequently they have to mark the curves and angles which occur, for instance, six or seven times between the elbow and the wrist, and to determine how many can be omitted if the scale be less than that of life. 2384. The majority of men who can draw the figure tolerably well can draw nothing else equally correctly: for the reason that their attention has been given to the mechanism of the human form solely; the representation, by our best portrait-painters, of the accessories which they introduce into their pictures, especially of architectural details, is almost without an exception ludicrously inaccurate. Every person who has tried to apply his power of representing geometric forms to the task of copying in chalk from a mask, must be aware of the enormous facility which he acquires by previously studying the usual methods of expressing the totality of the eye, the ear, the nose, and the lips. In a similar manner, the artist who wishes to give the effect of a suite of mouldings, or of a carved ornament, requires to know previously all the parts which compose the work. In other words, some men can pretend to sketch distant rocks and yet miss the very features by which the outlines intimate the geological character. 2385. Such are the reasons which have for many years led to the conviction that the architect's course of drawing should leave the figure alone until he has made one or more studies from carving in each style of art that opportunity presents to him; this is affirmed to be the only method of obtaining a satisfactory appreciation of the minute characteristics which sometimes constitute the differences between styles; and the only method of making a royal road to the object, which some teachers pretend is the easiest, but is truly the most difficult, in art. Having acquired the power of accurate representation of ornament, which involves dexterity in the use of his materials, the student may commence his operations with the figure. 2386. The method proposed in the following pages is old, at least in principle, yet it has been of late years published as new in Paris, by M. Dupuis. (“De l'Enseignement du Dessin sous le point de vue industriel," 1836.) The principles of the work, however, are perhaps better expressed and arranged, in some respects, than we might have presented them to the reader: and we shall not, therefore, apologise for the free use we make of it, premising however, that in respect to the whole figure and the application of the method to landscapes, what follows is not found in the work of M. Dupuis. 2387. Between the ancient mode of teaching the student (we will take the head, for instance, shown in fig. 809. as the first roughing of the leading lines of that which in fig. 812. has reached its completion) and the method practised by M. Dupuis, the only difference is this, that M. D., instead of letting the student form the rough outline at once from the finished bust, roughing out on paper the principal masses, provides a series of models roughly bossed out in their different stages, which he makes the student draw. The system is ingenious; but as the greatest artists have been made without the modification in question, we do not think it material; at all events, the principles are the same. M. Dupuis, for this purpose, has a series of sixteen models, the first of each four of the series are quite sufficient to show the old as well as his own practice. Thus, in fig. 809, the general mass of the oval of the head is given, in which it is seen that the profile is indicated by an obtuse angle, whose extreme point corresponds with the lower part of the nose, and the lines at one extremity terminate with the roots or commencement of the hair, and at the other with the lower jaw. The form of the rest of the head is the result of combining the most projecting points of it by curved lines, in short, of supposing a rough mass, out of which the sculptor might actually, in marble or other material, form the head. Fig. 809. Fig. 810. 2388. The next step is exhibited in fig. 810., with the four principal divisions: the occipital to the beginning of the hair, the forehead to the line of the eyes, the projection of the nose, and the inferior part of the face, with some indication of the mouth. 2389. In fig. 811. it will be seen that another step is gained. appears, but we speak with reference to the subject, being less in profile), the mouth, the ehin, and the ear are more clearly marked out, with some sort of expression of the whole work, but still without details, though sufficiently indicating that little more is necessary to bring the rude sketch of fig. 809. to a resemblance. The eyes (here only one 2390. In fig. 812. this is obtained; but still, according to the degree to which an artist considers finishing necessary, to be further pursued and carried through to make a perfect drawing; all that is here intended being to show the principles upon which the matter is conducted, and upon which we shall presently have further observations to make. It will be observed, that on the shadowing and finishing in this way the drawings the student may make we set no value: when he can draw, if those matters be of importance to him, they will not be difficult of acquisition. Fig. 811. Fig. 812. 2390a. Having accomplished the art of drawing, with tolerable correctness, the figure, the architect will have little difficulty in drawing the most complex productions of nature. The principles are precisely the same; but we wish here to impress upon him the necessity of recurring to nature herself for his ornaments: a practice which will always impart a freshness and novelty to them which even imitation of the antique will not impart. 2391. The port crayon, whether carrying chalk or a black lead pencil of moderate weight and size, say full seven inches long, is the best instrument to put into the hands of the beginner. The first object he must consider in roughing the subject, as in fig. 809., is the relation the height of the whole bears to its width; and this determined, he must proceed to get the general contour, without regard to any internal divisions, and thus proceed by subdivisions, bearing the relative proportions to each other of the model, comparing them with one another and with the whole. We will now show how the port crayon assists in this operation. Let the pupil be supposed seated before the model, at such a distance from it that at a single look, without changing the position of his head upwards, downwards, or sideways, his eye takes in the whole of it. The strictest attention to this point is necessary, for difficulties immediately present themselves if he is too near, as well as if he is too far from it. And here let it be observed that the visual rays (see fig. 813.) upon every object Fig. 813. may be compared to the legs of a pair of compasses, which open wider as we approach the object and close as we recede from it. This is a law of perspective well known, and which the student may easily prove by experiment, keeping the head of the compasses near his eye, and opening the legs to take in, in looking along them, any dimension of an object. He will soon find that as he approaches such object he must open the legs wider in order to comprise within them the given dimension. Hence every diameter or dimension, separately considered, is comprised in the divergence of the visual rays. It is on this account that, being at a proper distance, any moveable measure which with a free motion of his body he can interpose upon some one of the points of the distance between his eye and the model, may, though much less than the model itself, take in the whole field of view, reach the extremities of the dimension, and consequently become of great assistance in certain mathematical measures. For by applying such a measure to one division only of the model, we shall obtain, as it were, an integer for finding a great many others into which the model may be subdivided. 2392. Thus, taking fig. 809., which is profile, and supposing the width at the neck unity, if this is twice and a half contained in the general height of the bust. we have immediately the proportions of one to two and a half, which may be immediately set out on the Diper or canvas. This is not all; the integer or unity obtained by the diameter of the neck serves also for measuring the horizontal diameter of the head. and also of the bust; whence new proportions may be obtained. So much for the first casting of the general form. Now, in the entire bust, as respects the head only, suppose we wish to obtain the proportions of the principal divisions, for example, from the base of the bust to the base of the chin, we may establish another integer to measure other parts; as, if from the point of view, the distance from the base of the bust to the base of the chin is the same as from the last to the summit of the head, the learner would have nothing more to do in that respect than to divide the whole height into two equal parts. On the same principle, passing from divisions to subdivisions, the distance between the base of the chin and the point whence the nose begins to project, may be found a measure for the height of the nose, and from thence to the top of the cranium. We are here merely showing the method of obtaining different integers for measuring the different parts mentioned; others will in practice occur continually, after a very little practice. We do not suppose our readers will believe that we propose to teach drawing by mathematical rules; we now only speak of obtaining points from which undulating and varying lines are to spring and return, and which none but a fine and sensitive eye will be able to express. But to return to the port crayon, which is the moveable measure or compasses whereto we have alluded, and requires only skilful handling to perform the offices of compasses, square, plumb rule, and level. By interposing it (see fig. 813.) on the divergence of the visual rays between the eye and the object, we may estimate the relative proportions; since in the field of view the learner may apply it to the whole or any of the parts, and make any one a measure for another. For this purpose he must hold it, as shown in the figure, steadily and at arm's length. Any portion of it that is cut by the visual rays between any two parts of the object, becomes the integer for the measurement of other parts whereof we have been speaking. This in the drawing will be increased according as the size is greater or less than the portion of the port crayon intercepting the visual rays. This process may be easily accomplished by making, upon one and the same line of the visual ray, the extreme point of the port crayon to touch one of the extremities of the proportion sought upon the model, so that they may exactly correspond. Then at the same time fixing the thumb or fore-finger where the visual ray from the other extremity is intercepted, we shall find any equal length by moving the port crayon with the thumb and fore-finger fixed to any other part we want, as to size, to compare with the first, or by using the same expedient to other parts, other integers may be found. The different integers, indeed, which may be thus obtained is infinite. The port crayon will also serve the purpose of a plumb bob by laying hold of it by the chalk, and holding it just only so tight between the fingers as to prevent its falling, so that its own gravity makes it assume a vertical direction. Doing so, if it then be held up to intercept the visual rays, we may discover the proportion in which a line swells whose directon approaches the vertical, as also the quantity one part projects before another in the model; and comparing this again with the integer, obtain new points for starting from. Again, by holding it before the eye in an horizontal direction, we shall obtain the different parts of the model that lie before the eye in the same horizontal line. degrees we shall thus soon find the eye become familiarised with the model it contemplates; judgment in arranging the parts supervenes; the hand becomes bold and unhesitating, and the leading forms are quickly transferred to the paper or canvas to be subdivided to such extent as is required by the degree of finish intended to be bestowed upon the drawing. By 2393. The process that we have considered more with relation to the bust is equally applicable to the whole figure. In fig. 814. we have more particularly shown by the dotted lines the horizontal and vertical use of the port crayon; but the previous adjustment of some measure of unity for proportioning the great divisions to each other is also applied to it as already stated. In the figure, EE is the line of the horizon, or that level with the eye; it will be |