our province, except to notice them. With this subject is connected the varieties of revolving shutters in iron, wood, or steel, and with or without machinery; and made to lift up, or down, or to move sideways. A revolving safety shutter in one sheet of steel is probably the last invention; it requires no machinery. Where the old method of putting up shutters exists, Jennings's shop-shutter shoes secure them as they are each put up, without the necessity of any shutter bar.

2255g. Wrought iron wine bins, and new registered iron bins, adapted for small quantities of wine, placed in a closet in a sitting or other room, and with or without doors, will be found a useful addition in small houses.

ORNAMENTAL METAL WORK.

2255h. The ornamental portion of SMITH'S work has been largely introduced, of late years especially, in wrought iron shaped by hand into various devices and patterns, more especially according to the several periods of medieval architecture. The taste is chiefly developed in gates, railings, altar and staircase standards, screens, grilles and gratings, tombs, hinge fronts, the band finishing either in a fleur de lis or trident, reaching to about three-fourths of the width of the door, and of ths iron; or in some scrollwork, which curls and scrolls over the entire face of the door; shutter hinges, common door hinges; gable crosses, terminals, vanes, and hipknobs; ridge crestings; drop handles with plates, closing rings and plates; lock plates and escutcheons, knockers, keys, latches and bolts, bell pulls, levers and plate pulls; umbrella stands; scrapers; fenders and fire-irons; dog-grates; lecterns and book rests; candlesticks, gas, lamp, and candle pendants and brackets, desk lights, and standards; coronæ lucis, lanterns, and pillars. It is almost unnecessary to add that many of these articles are to be had in polished brass, and that many of them are imitated in cast iron. Wrought and cast iron, as in panelled work to gates, are sometimes employed together, the wrought parts enclosing the panels.

2255i. As iron has now neither the tenacity nor the ductility which it gained by the old process of being repeatedly forged, the modern smith can scarcely hope to emulate the fine works which were produced in mediæval times, unless the iron be made for the purpose. It is not easy to repeat the mediaval operations of slotting a bar, so as to get the eyes at equal distances, without a machine; or of fastening hot (or, as in later times, cold) clips; or of cutting slits into a bar from the edge, and then curling the splintered parts; yet these were common work for the smith in the 12th century. It is equally difficult to produce the twisted work which was easy to the medieval smith, whose chief eare in the 13th and 14th centuries was bestowed in welding, stamping, and chiselling ; the file was scarcely ever used. In welding he was careful to fire the two parts separately, getting the upper one to a white heat, the lower part to a red heat, and hammering the joint lightly at first, but harder as the iron grew colder. He disguised the uneven state of the upper part by punching on it separate dots, or else close ones, forming a sort of incised line.

2255j. In very large specimens of ancient work, some parts are additions entirely welded, others are additions confined at the ends by bands, which are welded across the groundwork. To imitate work of the 13th century, such as a grille, requires a drawing at full size, and a matrix for each leaf or bud, with an anvil cut to each section which a bar or a band is to assume; this last seems, with regard to the bar, to have been overlooked by M. Viollet-le-Duc. Then, when a bar has been rounded (if needful), and the end stamped, the curl is given, and the smith has a stalk with a foot. Two of these must be applied to the drawing to have the point of junction marked, and the feet are to be welded together. If the sprigs then made are to be combined into branches, the larger stem is to be prepared; and, if moulded on the face, this was passed between the hammer and the cut anvil by a process equivalent to rolling the bar. After the sprigs are welded with the branch, the poverty of the joint is perhaps to be masked; usually the mask was a moulded band, to which an ornament, e.g. a cup of foliage, was sometimes added; but frequently the band was superseded by a stamped button. After the feet of the branches are welded to the trunk or main stem, bands are laid over the junction, are welded, and are finished with the chisel. The whole has to be riveted to the framework. The size and weight of the pieces at the last times of welding were difficulties that were partly obviated after 1250 by omitting the welded bands.

2255k. These operations were superseded by the introduction of sheet iron, in England before 1300, in Germany before 1400, and in France soon afterwards, which was cut and bossed to a remarkable extent, sometimes stamped, and frequently welded, but later was riveted. In work of the 15th century the bars are neither stamped nor chased, and the sheets are riveted instead of being welded; but later they are either planted or housed. Finally, the medieval smith returned to the slots, mortises, and

short bars of the earlier periods, and used clips which were closed cold with rivets of soft iron.

22551. The use of metal work in decoration, both as fixed in buildings, and in useful movable articles, is most ancient; the use of bronze is recorded extensively in Greece and Rome. The metal so used has been mostly lost to us. Except gold, this is the most enduring metal, and is susceptible of the finest work which the modeller can bestow upon it, and the chaser can enlarge on it. Its tenacity, too, enables cast work to have thick and thin places, such as cast iron, and to some extent cast brass, will not allow without cracking. The statue of Colleoni at Venice, by Verocchio, is a fine example, together with its band of bronze ornament round the pedestal. The gates and enclosure of the tomb of Henry VII.'s chapel in Westminster Abbey should be studied for the art as well as for their curious construction. Bronze is a metal which is beautiful if left in its own golden tone, and in changing from this tone it never becomes ugly. It can be gilt, and will take various patinas, the green, brown, and black; and when used with marble of contrasting colours, produces effects which cannot be had so well in any other way. J. S. Gardner, Monumental Use of Bronze, in Journals of February and March, 1888, which describes the cire perdue process of casting.

2255m. Wrought iron has special qualities of strength, tenacity, durability, and relative cheapness. It has lately come more and more into use. Hinges, screens, railings, grilles, knockers, door handles, dogs, fenders, fittings for lights, fire irons.

2255n. Polished iron is to be seen, but is not generally suitable for use in this damp climate, but the fine grey polish it takes is very harmonious with rooms richly furnished.

22550. Steel was much used in the latter part of the 18th century; it has rather a cold and severe tone, but where it can be kept clean it may be used with excellent effect.

2255p. For external work, black or painted wrought iron must be used. The present manufacture of iron is not favourable to durability; the old mode of smelting by charcoal made a finer, close and ductile iron, and less liable to rust; and perhaps the atmosphere in the great cities and towns is not favourable to the duration of wrought iron work. For fine work the best iron should be used, especially when the work is intricate and needs many welds. The French work of Louis XIV.'s time is very stately, rich, and well balanced in design, with firm leading lines and graceful foliage and garlands. In Louis XV.'s time the curves became bolder and looser, as in all art of that time, as in the eight screens in the Grand Place at Nancy. In Louis XVI.'s time the work became elegant and rather stiff. Soon after, fine ironwork died out. The German work is comparatively clumsy, and the endless scrolls with sprays going out at strange tangents, and passing through the scrolls in gratuitously difficult ways, the scrolls ending in flowers of the shape of cocoons, and with antennæ springing from them, so as to remind one of great insects, are not very beautiful, if clever from the ironworker's point of view. In later times ironwork throughout Europe seems to have been greatly affected by the French taste of the time. In England, the very noble work of Huntington Shaw, now at the South Kensington Museum, having been removed from Hampton Court Palace, is different from any other work, though it has its points of resemblance with French ironwork. This and the gates and grilles in St. Paul's Cathedral are some of the best ironwork in England. The construction is good, and the ornament is so applied as to enrich the construction without hiding it, and to make a good composition of open and solid work, well contrasted and varied in the screens almost infinitely. There is a largeness of style in these screens and in the St. Paul's work, probably impressed upon it by Sir C. Wren. The later work at the Adelphi has a very good contrast of free and rigid lines.

22559. There is no reason why the men now living should not do work as good as the old men did. There is still skill, patience, and dexterity in the country, and English work from the 12th to the 18th century can be well compared with work of other countries, so we need not be ashamed to compare that of the 19th century. The design must be suitable to tne material. (H. Longden.)

2255r. The chief articles furnished by the IRONMONGER are for the joiner's use, and, except in particular cases, are kept in store by that tradesman for immediate supply.

2257. They consist in screws made in brass, copper and iron, whose common sizes are rom three-quarters of an inch up to 4 inches in length. They are sold by the dozen. elf boring wood screws, the thread being made at a particular angle, are supplied in lengths of §. §. §, 1, 11, 12, 18, 2, 21, 3, 3, and 4 inches.

2257a. Nails are now both wrought, cut, and cast, and made of iron, copper, and zinc. They are called by a variety of names, according to their special uses. The principal are here enumerated, Back nails, whose shanks are flat so as to hold fast but not open the

wood. Clamp nails are for fastening clamps. Clasp nails, or brads, are those with flatted heads, so that they may clasp the wood. They also render the wood smooth, so as to admit of a plane going over it. The sorts of most common use in building are known by the names of ten-penny, twenty-penny, and two-shilling nails. Clench nails are such as are used by boat and barge builders, sometimes with boves or nuts, but often without. They are made with clasp heads for fine work, or with the head beat flat on two sides. Clout naiis, used for nailing clouts on axle-trees, are flat-headed, and ironwork is usually nailed on with them. Deck nails, for fastening decks in ships and floors nailed with planks. Dog or jobent nails, for fastening the hinges of doors, &c. Flat points are of two sorts, long and short; the former much used in shipping, and useful where it is necessary to hold fast and draw without requiring to be clenched; the latter are furnished with points to drive into hard wood. Lead nails, used for nailing lead, leather, and canvas to hard wood, are the same as clout nails dipped in lead or solder. Port nails, for nailing hinges to the ports of ships. Ribbing nails, used for fastening the ribbing to keep the ribs of ships in their place while the ship is building. Rose nails are drawn square in the shank. Rother nails, chiefly used for fastening rother irons to ships. Scupper nails, much in use for fastening leather and canvas to wood. Sharp nails, much used in the West Indies, and made with sharp points and flat shanks. Sheathing nails, for fastening sheathing boards to ships; their length is usually three times the thickness of the board. Square nails are of the same shape as sharp nails; chiefly used for hard wood. Brads are long and slender nails without heads, used for thin deal work to avoid splitting. To these may be added tacks, the smallest sort of which serve to fasten paper to wood; the middling for medium work; and the larger size, which are much used by upholsterers. These are known by the name of white tacks, two-penny, three-penny, and four-penny tacks. Cut nails are now much used.

22576. Nails of Crown quality comprise "cut clasp of inch, 14, 2, 2, and 3 to 6 inches long. Floor brads of 24 and 24 inches long. Cut lath of and 1 inch. Joiners' brads of 1, 14, 11, 13, and 2 inches. Steel flat point rose for clenching, 14, 13, 2, 21, 21, 23, and 3 to 4 inches long. Cordes' patent rose, flat points, 14, 1, 13, 2, 2, and 3 to 6 inches long. Slate nails, 14 or 1 inches, of zinc, wire, malleable, galvanized." Spikes of 5, 6, and 7 inch lengths. See GLOSSARY, ADHESION.

2257c. WEIGHT OF FLOORING BRADS PER 1,000 (RARELY EXCEEDING 900 Nails).

2257d. Tacks are tinned over; and all nails can be galvanized to prevent their rusting. Nails for ornamental purposes, and likewise screws, are made with brass heads, and the latter also with gilt heads.

2258. Butt hinges, whose name is probably derived from butting close surface to surface when closed, are used for hanging doors and shutters, and made of wrought and cast iron and brass, the former varying in size from 14 to 4 inches in length; the latter from 1 inch to 4 inches. These, as well as all other hinges, are in size necessarily proportioned to the magnitude and consequent weight of the shutters or doors they are to carry; and it is to be observed that, for the well-hanging of a door or shutter, the size of the hinge should be rather on the outside of enough than under the mark. There is a species of hinge used for doors called the rising joint hinge, a contrivance in which the pivot, having on it a short portion of a spiral thread, and the part to which the door is fixed having a correspondent mass, the door in opening rises, and clears the carpet or other impediment usually placed on the floor. The projecting brass butt is used when the shutter or door is required to clear some projection, and thus, when opened, to lie completely back in a plane parallel to its direction when shut. All hinges are sold by the pair, including the necessary screws.

2258a. Besides these hinges there are cross garnets, whose form is like the letter sidewise. These are only used on the commonest external doors, and are made from 10 to 12 inches, varying in their dimensions by differences of two inches. H hinges are of the shape of the letter H, showing their form as well as the origin of their name; and in their sizes range from 4 to 12 inches by differences of an inch. H hinges (H and L conjoined), whose form is implied by their name, and whose sizes are from 4 to 14 inches,

proceed by inches. Parliament hinges arɑ to allow a shutter to open back upon a wall, and are made of cast and wrought iron, from 3 to 5 inches, proceeding in size by half inches.

22586. Redmund's patent hinges consist of, iron rising butts; or in brass with moulded burnished knuckles and concealed joints; iron and brass projecting butts with moulded burnished knuckles, flaps, and concealed joints, in three sizes of proportional strength, from 1 to 4 inches projection; pew hinges, in iron and brass, projecting 1, 14, and 2 inches. Rising spring hinges in iron; and not rising spring hinges, in brass, iron, and patent malicable iron, and of single and double action; these are made flush, the knuckle being made to suit the bead of the architrave; rising swing hinges, which rise and act each way; gate hinges of many descriptions, &c.

2258c. Coliinge's patent spherical hinges run from 2 to 6 inches, in plain brass, ornamental brass, and cast iron. The gate or strap hinge, from 1 foot 6 inches to 3 feet 6 inches, in steps of 3 inches. Improved gate springs, with hardened joints. Spring hinges, and also to open both ways, are made light, strong, and extra strong, for 1, 2, 21, and 24 inch doors, in iron and brass.

2258d. Among other useful hinges are swing centres, double action, to open both ways, known as Smith's patent, Redmund's and Gerish's, chiefly for 2 and 2 inch doors. Hart's iron rod door springs, from 15 to 42 inches, called No. 1, No. 2, No. 3 and No. 4 qualities, also brass mounted. Circular door springs. Rising and not rising door back springs; spiral door springs; and patent climax door springs for single and double action doors, must also be noted for closing doors.

2259. Rough rod bolts are those in which there is no continued barrel for the bolt, and are for the most common service. Their sizes begin with a length of 3 inches, and proceed by inches up to a length of 10 inches; such, at least, are their common sizes. Bright rod bolts run of the same sizes as the last; and, as the name indicates, the bolt is polished and finished, so as to make them a better fastening, as far as appearance is conconcerned. The spring plate bolt is contrived with a spring to keep the bolt up to its work, but one which so soon gets out of order that we wonder it is now manufactured or used. It is made of lengths from 3 to 8 inches, by variations of an inch in size. Barrelled bolts are those in which the whole length of the bolt is enclosed in a continued cylindrical barrel, and are superior to all others in use, as well as the most finished in their appear ance. The common sizes are from 6 to 12 inches, varying by steps of an inch. All the bolts above mentioned are sold per piece by the ironmonger, as are th se called flush bolts, a name given to such as are let into the surface to which they are applied, so as to stand flush with it. They are mostly made of brass, and are of two different thicknesses, viz. half and three-quarter inch. Their lengths vary from 2 to 12 inches, and occasionally, as circumstances may require, as in book-case doors and French sashes, to a greater length. But for French casements, what is called the Espagnolette bolt, a contrivance whose origin is French, though much improved in its manufacture here, is now more generally in use. Smith's patent weather-tight casement fastenings for French windows, consist of a plate formed in the edge of one door, which when shut is forced half its width into a groove in the other door. This acts in lieu of the Espagnolette bolt above mentioned. Smith's patent water bar for casements opening outwards has been mentioned in pars. 21656. and 2255d. Jackson's patent mortise bolt appears to be a late improvement upon the round or the flush bolt. Elliott's patent perfect simplex metal weather bar is adapted for all sorts of casements and doors opening inwards. It is made in zinc, brass, and iron.

2260. Pulleys, for hanging sashes and shutters, are made of iron and of brass, and with brass sheaves and brass axles. Their sizes are from one inch and a half to two inches and a half in diameter. M'Adam's pulleys for window sashes, of porcelain or vitreous material, are considered to be exempt from damp and rust through which cords may become rotten. He adds to them a method of hanging double sashes with a single weight on each side of the window. Johnson's patent axle pulley for sashes, whereby the wheel, axle, and bushes can be removed for oiling and cleaning; the two last being covered in, are protected from dust and damp; and the wheels cannot get fixed as in ordinary pulleys. Adams' patent reversible and sliding window, by which the glass can be cleaned from the inside. Solid-frame oilable sash pulleys. Austin's imperial patent sash and blind lines are made of flax in four qualities, and his new imperial patent flax sash line for heavy weights. Patent braided sash line with a twisted copper wire centre, known as the "patent golden eagle sash line." A common description is made from jute, but it is very inferior to flax. Henry's patent sash line fastener is easily fitted and the cord readily adjusted. Newall's patent copper wire cord and wire strand are extensively used for window sash line, hothouses, lightning conductors, picture cord, clock cord, tent ropes, clothes lines, &c; the advantages, as reported, being that they are cheaper, much more durable, equally flexible, and one-sixth part the bulk. Newall's patent improved iron wire rope we do not detail.

ЗА

Wire strand, 4 and 6 wire, of No. 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 qualities; galvanized and ungalvanized. 2261. The varieties of locks, their contrivances for security, and their construction, are so many, that to describe them minutely would require almost a work of itself. All that the architect has to deal with, for common purposes in building, we shall mention. Fur fastening places where particular security is requisite, as strong closets for plate or cash, some of the patented locks should be used, and we must leave this matter for inquiry in the hands of the architect. Every patentee says his invention is the best. We nevertheless believe, not withstanding the boasts of all the inventors, that no lock has appeared which an expert locksmith acquainted with its construction will not be able to pick. The locks in common use are stock locks, whose box is usually of wood, and whose sizes vary from 7 to 10 inches. Dead locks, whose sizes are from 4 to 7 inches, and so called from the key shooting the bolt home dead, without a spring. Cupboard locks, of 3, 3, and 4 inches in size. Iron rim locks, whose box or case is made of iron, and which are fitted on to one of the sides of a door, and whose sizes are from 6 to 8 inches. Of those made of the last-named size, there are some, as also of 9 inches, which are used for external doors, called iron rim drawback locks. For the doors of all well-finished apartments mortise locks are used. These take their name from being mortised into the thickness of the door, and being thus hidden. Gerish's patent cylindrical mortise lock, Barron's patent locks, Bramah's patent locks, Hodges' patent lock furniture, Kaye's patent automatic lock and door opener, or push and pull lock, and Chubb's pitent locks. Hobbs's patent locks "are made for all purposes, from the smallest cab net to the largest fortress gate." Hill's patent reversible rim lock has four "hands" in one lock, doing away with the necessity of considering which way the door is to open. Tucker's new patent flush bolt spring lock, self-locking dead lock, and railway carriage flush bolt spring lock; they lock themselves when closing or closed. Biggs' patent tubular reversible mortise lock; the machine-made lock, 6 inches long and one inch diameter; the foreplate and striking plate are 3 inch by 1 inch, with rounded ends. To these either plain or fancy furniture, that is, knobs and escutcheons, are affixed. Longbottom's patent adjustable lock furniture, simple and reliable.

2261a. Pitt's patent self-adjusting spindle, with his new patent mount and spindle, and Ager's patent adjusting spindle, all command a large sale. They are all fitted with knobs and plates, from china, plain white and buff, to gold lines, gold bands, flowers, &c., and in hard woods, as ebony, maple, satin, rose, mahogany, wainscot, and walnut; the knobs in many shapes: also with plain and fancy brass, brass and china combined, and buffalo horn furniture. Also with glass furniture, crystal and amber of varying shapes and cutting, with green, black, and opal cut octagons. Above and below them finger plates are generally directed to be fixed, to prevent the door being soiled in the places where it is mostly caught.

name

2262. The different sorts of latches in use are the thumb latch, which receives its na from the thumb being placed on the lever to raise its latch; the Norfolk-latch, which is sunk, and requires a pressure on the lever to raise the latch; the Suffolk-latch; the fourinch bow latch, with brass knobs; the brass pulpit latch; the mortise latch; and Gothic

latches.

2262a. Wishaw's registered improved telekouphonon," for speaking pipes, consists of a whistle mouth-piece of ivory, wood, or metal, with an indicator attached to point out from which one or two or more tubes the whistle proceeds. These pipes are now arranged for one or more mouthpieces. Electric bells are named in the next section. The ordinary crank system of bell hanging is noticed in SPECIFICATIONS, 2292.