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22246. TABLE II. OF THE WEIGHT OF A LINEAL FOOT OF ROUND AND SQUARE COPPER,

IN POUNDS.

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24 ⚫54 96 1.50 2.16 2.94 3.84 4.86 6.00 7.27 865 10-15

188 424 755 1.17 1.69 2.31 302 3.82 4.71 571 679 7.94

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17 2 21 2 23
11.7713-52 15 38 17 36 19.47 21 69 24.03 26 50 29-08 31-7934-61

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9.21 10 61 12 08 13 64 15-29 17-03 18 87 20 81 22.84 24·92 27·18

The table given in Hurst's Handbook, page 82, is a slight increase on the above; from that work, page 85, the following table has been derived.

2224c. TABLE III, OF THE WEIGHT OF COPPER, PER SUPERFICIAL FOOT, IN POUNDS.

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2.891 5.781 8.672 11.563 14-453 17.344 20-234 | 23·125

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Weight

26.016 28.906 31-79734-688 37-578 40 469 43.359 46.250

2224d. Solder for copper, iron, and brass, is composed of an alloy of zinc and copper; for pewter an alloy of tin, lead, and bismuth. Copper is a metal too soft to use very much in decoration, but it goes well with brass, in inlay, incrustation, or bands. A tinned copper bowl where the ground is cut away and the pattern left is a good example

of work.

2224e. Wetterstedt's patent metal should be laid by a good plumber. The flats are formed with rolls and drips similar in every respect to lead, but the latter should be formed with a gradual descent. The rolls need not be more than 1 to 14 inch diameter, tapered at the ends, and brought close up to the edge of the drip. Circular and sloping roofs may be laid either with rolls or welts, the ends of the sheets being joined by a welt or overlap of 6 inches. The metal should be laid free, and nails avoided as much as possible, but if used they should be of wrought copper. Soldering is to be avoided, but to secure the metal as against an upright face, a solder dot over a screw is the best means to adopt.

2224f. Muntz's metal is used as a coating for iron vessels under water; to prevent galvanic action a band of vitreous sheathing is attached for some distance below and above the water line. This sheathing consists of small plates of iron covered with a preparation of glass, and is intended to be an anti-fouling as well as a protective agent.

ZINC.

2224g. The common sheets in general use are 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 ounces to the foot superficial; and as 18 thicknesses of 16 ounces to the foot are half an inch thick, the following show the thicknesses of the different weights:

Plates or sheets of 10 ounces to the foot are 0·01736 inch thick.

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0.03125 "9
0-03472 99

It is employed for water-cisterns and baths, rain-water pipes-in short, for almost all purposes where lead has been hitherto employed. Latterly it has been formed into sashbars for skylights and ornamental sashes; for which purposes, strength excepted, it is superior to iron, as not being liable to rust, and loosen the putty and glass. It is, in every respect, equal to copper, and not more than one-third the cost of it. The discovery of the electro process was said to have introduced the application of zinc to cast and wrought iron, so as to prevent its oxidation or rust, but such has not been the case (see galvanized and zinked IRON).

2224h. About 1861. the Vieille Montagne Zine Mining Company took steps to improve the mode of laying zine roofs, and to prevent the use of thin gauges of sheet zinc, which are unfit for the purpose. This Company recommend that for roofs and flats on boards no gauge thinner than No. 13 be used: a medium thickness, No. 14, for roofs, flats, and gutters; for best work and for roofs without boards, Nos. 15 or 16. The Company is preparing thicker zinc, Nos. 17 and 18, principally for gutters. Steel cut gauges notched for roofing numbers only, are supplied whereby to test the thickness. The weight of No. 13 gauge is 19 oz. 10 drs.; No. 14 is 21 oz. 13 drs; No. 15 is 24 oz.; and No. 16 is 26 oz. 3 drs., per square foot.

2224i. Good zinc, properly laid, has been proved by long experience in France, Belgium, Germany, and Italy, to be a secure, durable, and economical covering. No detrimental effects from any particular climate are to be feared, so that care be taken to adopt the proper mode of laying, and to select the proper gauges, of the best quality of zinc. Even good zine badly laid will prove a failure. Screws or embossed holes on the surface of good zine work are not required. As the prescribed mode for laying zinc, illustrated by diagrams, can be obtained on application to the agents of Devaux's Vieille Montagne Zinc Company, and to the agents for the supply of the Improved roofing zinc, we do not consider it necessary to describe it here in detail.

2224k. Stamped ornamental zinc, for dormers, Mansard roofs, vanes, finials, moulding, and enrichments, has been used on the Continent for many years with good effect. In London it is hardly known, but has been employed lately at the Charing Cross Hotel; at the Langham Hotel; and at No. 114 Piccadilly. The steeple of Ripple Church, Kent; the Victoria Railway Station, Pimlico; and many other public and private buildings throughout the kingdom, now show the employment of this useful material.

22241. Perforated zinc for various sizes of perforations or in patterns, is extensively employed in filling up squares in sashes, or panels in partitions, to assist ventilation by breaking the force of the current of air.

Zine has been noticed in paragraphs 1792 to 1797.

BRASS.

2224m. Brass is a metal which has been adopted very widely in the last thirty years, in art progress, for the decoration of public buildings, churches, and houses. The feeling of softness, which the special smoothness and polish of brass calls for in design, requires much study; the rounded contours, with great delicacy in the curves, and fine detail, some of it almost imperceptible, is what the skilled turner knows how to give to the work. Candlesticks, chandeliers, dishes, fire-irons, fenders, dcgs, balustrades in screens to choirs and chapels, as in Belgium and Holland (the last having a very rich and beautiful effect); fonts, desk rails, lecterns, sepulchral brasses, arrangements for lighting, are among the many purposes for which this material is employed. Inferior brass turns nearly black by the smoke of towns and chemical vapours, but good brass only requires moderate care to keep it looking well.

TABLE OF THE WEIGHT OF A SUPERFICIAL FOOT OF A PLATE OF BRASS, IN POUNDS. (Molesworth, Formula.)

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Weight in pounds 2.7 5.5 8.2 11 13-716-4 19.2 21.9 24.6 27.4 30.1 32.9 35.6 38.3 41 2 43.9

This material has been described in paragraph 1790.

SECT. VIII.

GLAZING.

2225. Glazing, or the business of the glazier, consists in fitting glass in sashes, frames, and casements, either in putty or lead. It may be classed under the heads of SASHWORK, LEADWORK, and FRETWORK. Glass, as a material, has been already described in Chap. II. Sect. XII. of this book.

2226. The tools necessary for SASHWORK are—a diamond, polished to a cutting point, and set in brass in an iron socket, to receive a wooden handle, by which it is held in a cutting direction. The top of the handle goes between the root of the forefinger and middle finger, and the under part between the point of the forefinger and thumb. In general, there is a notch on the side of the socket, which should be held next the lath. Some diamonds have more cuts than one. Plough diamonds have a square nut on the end of the socket next the glass, which, on running the nut square on the side of the lath, keeps it in the cutting direction. Glass benders have their plough diamonds without long handles, as they cannot make use of a lath in cutting, but direct them by the point of their middle finger. The ranging lath should be long enough to extend beyond the boundary of the table of glass. Ranging of glass is the cutting it in breadths, and is best done by one uninterrupted cut from one end to the other. A short lath is used for stripping the square to suit the rebate of the sash, as in ranging they are generally cut full. A square, for the more accurate cutting at the right angles from the range. The carpenter's chisel is used in paring away some of the rebate of the sash when the glass does not lie so flat as to allow a proper breadth for front putty. The glazing knife is used for laying in the putty on the rebates, for bedding in the glass, and finishing the front putty. A bradding hammer is made with a head in the form of a small parallelopiped, with a socket for the handle, using it at an obtuse angle from the middle of one of its sides. The square edges of the head drive the brads in a horizontal direction, and with this tool there is less liability to accident than with any other. Some use the basil of the chisel for the purpose. Brass points are considered the best for bradding; small cut brads are also used. All new works should be bradded, to prevent the glass being moved out of its bed. The duster is a large brush for brushing the putties, and taking the oil from the glass. The sash tool is used wet, for taking the oil from the inside after the back putties are cleared off. The hacking knife is for cleaning out the old putty from the rebates where squares are to be stopped in. The use of the glazier's rule needs no explanation: it is 2 feet long, doubling in four different pieces.

2226a. The putty in which the glazier beds the glass is of four sorts. Soft putty, which is composed of tour, whiting, and raw linseed oil; hard putty, composed of whiting and boiled linseed oil; harder putty, the same ingredients as the last, with the addition of a small quantity of turpentine for more quickly drying it; hardest putty, composed of oil, red or white lead, and sand. The first of these putties is the most durable, because it forms an oleaginous coat on the surface, but it requires a long time for drying. The hard sorts are apt to crack if not soon well painted, and the hardest of them renders it difficult to replace a pane when broken; hence it is altogether unfit for hothouse and greenhouse work. Probably the best manner of fixing glass and glazed frames in stone mullions is with a mixture of Bath stone dust and linseed oil, made up similarly to putty. Its elasticity allows of any slight settlement if the work be new, and it is more of a waterproof cement than Portland, as it is not nearly so liable to crack that cement, without a large proportion of sand, will almost invariably burst glass or stone after a few months; and it also stains freestones. Corsham Down stone especially, giving it the appearance of having been burnt. (Builder, 1864, p. 796.)

22266. To remove glass from old sashes, a mixture of 3 parts of American potash with 1 part of unslaked lime, laid on both sides with a stick, and allowed to remain for twentyfour hours, will soften the putty enough to cut out easily. This mixture will also take off paint, and even tar.

2226c. Many systems of glazing large roofs have been introduced of late years, each supposed to be an improvement upon the other, and recommended by the designers for billiard-rooms, picture-galleries, dining-rooms, concert-halls, yards, large span roofs, &c. Braby's patent glazing; glass set free, allowing expansion and contraction, and precluding breakage.

Brown's patent system of glass and iron roofing. No putty, zine, galvanised iron, castiron, india-rubber, felt, asbestos, or other perishable material. Causley's system of glazing without putty, 1881.

Crewe's dry glazing; simple and cheap.

Drummond's patent roof-glazing; sash-bars in iron, steel, zinc, or wood.

Grover & Co.'s simplex glazing. No iron, zine, or putty. Lead strips on wood-bars, &c. Helliwell's patent perfection system of imperishable glass roofing. No putty used. Jeffrey's patent system of glazing, guaranteed air and water tight.

Johnson Brothers & Co.'s patent imperishable glazing.

Mackenzie's patents, by the British Patent Glazing Company (Limited). No zinc used; a lead cushion over an iron bar.

Mellowes and Darby's eclipse glazing; tin-lead bar, V section.

Rendle's Acme glazing.

Rendle & Burrow's indestructible glazing. Wood sash-bar, the glass covered on it by a wood capping.

Shelley's patent standard system of glazing, using glass up to 10 feet in length, with his patent bars placed two feet apart.

The Pennycook patent universal system of glazing without putty.

Each system must be examined for its peculiarity.

2226d. The Transparent Wire Wove Roofing Company (Limited) has manufactured a substitute for glass, made in sheets 10 ft. by 4 ft., at 64d. per foot. Much is said in favour of it, and for many purposes it may work in usefully as a temporary material.

22266. The diminution of light by passing through various sorts of glass has been given thus: British polished plate, 13 per cent.; rough cast plate, 30; rolled fluted plate, flutes to the inch, 53; 32 oz. sheet, 22; common window glass, about 10; ground glass, from 30 to 60; opal globes, from 50 to 60; green, purple, and ruby glass, 82 to 89; and porcelain transparency, over 974. Light decreases in the ratio of the square of its distance from its sources.

2227. LEADWORK for fixed lights is used in ecclesiastical buildings, often in inferior offices, and frequently in country buildings. Frames made with crossbars receive these lights, which are fastened to saddle bars. Where openings are wanted, a casement is introduced of wood or iron. Sometimes a sliding frame is used, particularly for house windows. Plain, painted, and stained lead lights have of late years been largely introduced in the so-called "Queen Anne" designs, and adapted for blind or transom, fanlight, door panel, or window.

2228. The glazier's vice is for preparing the leaden slips called cames with grooves, &c., to fit them for the reception of glass. The German vices are the best, and turn out a variety of lead in different sizes. There are moulds belonging to these vices in which bars of lead are cast; in this form the mill receives them, and turns them out with two sides parallel to each other, and about of an inch broad, and a partition connecting the two sides together, about of an inch wide, forming on each side a groove nearby of an inch, and 6 feet long. The setting board is that on which the ridge of the light is worked, and divided into squares, and struck out with a chalk line, or drawn with a lath, which serve to guide the workman. One side and end is squared with a projecting bead or fillet. The latterkin is a piece of hard wood pointed, and so formed as to clear the groove of the lead, and widen it, for the more readily receiving the glass. The setting knife is a blade with a round end, loaded with lead at the bottom of the blade, and having a long square handle. The square end of the handle serves to force the squares home tight in the lead; being loaded with lead, it is of greater weight, and also cuts off the ends of the lead with greater ease, as in the course of working these lights the lead is always longer than is necessary till trimmed.

2229. The resin box contains powdered resin, which is put on all the joints previous to soldering. Clips are for holding the irons. All the intersections are soldered on both sides except the outside joints of the outer side, that is, where they come to the outer edge. These lights should be cemented, which is done by thin paint being run along the le d bars, and the chasm filled with dry whiting. After it has stood a short time, a small quantity of dry red or white lead is dusted over it, which will enable it to resist the weather well.

C

D

2229a. FRETWORK is the ornamental part of leadlight work, and consists in working ground or stained glass into different patterns and devices, as may be seen in the old stained glass windows. The leads used until the middle of the seventeenth century are nearly of one uniform width, and are much narrower in the leaf than the common modern leads. That this was the case, can be proved not only by the existence of the original leads themselves, but more satisfactorily perhaps by the black lines drawn upon the glass, with which the glass painters were accustomed sometimes to produce the effect of leads without unnecessarily cuttin

E

3

18 Fig. 807d.

the glass. A in fig. 807d. represents an ancient lead of the usual width; B its section, consisting of the leaf, a and b, and the core c. C is the section of a German lead of the early part of the 14th century. D is a piece of modern fret lead of the ordinary width, and which is now considered (1847) as being very narrow; and E its section. The process of compressing the lead between rollers to the proper dimension makes them more rigid than the old leads. It is the practice at the present day to surround each glazing panel with a broad lead, that is, a lead three-quarters of an inch broad in the leaf, to strengthen the work (page 27.). Leads somewhat narrower than these were very extensively employed. An entire window, at Stowting Church, Kent, probably of the early part of the reign of Edward I V., was leaded with leads as F. The other lead, G, is of the early part of the reign of Henry VI., and is from Mells Church, Somersetshire, where similar lead is commonly used. This mode of strengthening the lead without increasing its width was not confined to the decorated period. Both these specimens had all the appearance of being cast in a mould. One of the faces in each is narrower than the others; these were placed outside, and the difference probably arose from decomposition of the metal. A still narrower lead may be occasionally met with in heraldry and other minute mosaic work of the 15th and 16th centuries. It is hardly necessary to observe that the greater the number of leads employed, the weaker individually may they be made (page 259-61.). The width of the leads must be proportionate to that of the lines usually painted on the glass, for the leaden outlines will easily be detected if they are much stronger than the painted ones. The effect of the increased width of modern leads, E, although so trifling, is very perceptible.

2229b. Saddle bars in ancient windows will be found to be usually placed from 8 to 9 inches apart, which seems to be the most agreeable distance, though one of 6 inches does not appear too little in some cases. The great object is to avoid, as much as possible, causing the light to appear as if it were divided into a number of square compartments, by making the height too nearly the width of the glass. Amongst the advantages resulting from the use of saddle bars at short intervals, is the opportunity it affords the glazier of carrying a horizontal lead across the light immediately in front of each saddle bar, the opacity of which hides the lead. This method of concealing lead work was carried to such perfection during the first half of the 16th century, that a person ignorant of it would find it difficult to conceive how some of the works of that period were constructed. 2229c. Iron standards or stancheons, in ancient windows put through the saddle bars, should be retained in pattern windows, which they improve, and do not appear to be out of place in picture windows whenever they do not happen to pass immediately behind the head of the principal figure. They seem also on the whole to improve the effect of the architecture from without. (WINSTON, Inquiry into Style in Glass Painting, Svo. 1847.) 2229d. It is stated that at Cologne Cathedral the glass is strong; the different pieces are joined together with lead, and soldered with tin, both inside and outside, which gives the whole great strength. The panes are fastened upon iron frames, which are again fastened upon rods. In the interior the panes are screwed upon iron bars, half an inch thick, which are let into the masonry.

2230. In London a large portion of the glazier's business consists in cleaning windows. 2231. Glazed partitions formed of wood, or of iron frames with the lower panels filled in with slate, are now very usual in warehouses, banks, and counting-houses. If sound be desired not to pass through such fittings, they must be glazed with extra thick glass; but double sheets or squares, placed about half an inch or more apart, and carefully puttied, is best. This method will also conduce to the warmth of the room. Double windows to the fronts of houses are common fittings to effect both the above purposes.

2231a. Glass has been introduced for a variety of building purposes. Thus, Lloyd and Summerfield's patent crystal window bars, for windows, shop fronts, and cases, are not uncommon. They are fitted with arched heads and spandrils of glass, having patterns, silvered or gilt, on a coloured ground. Glass tiles and slates are a useful auxiliary to a roof where a small modicum of light is required. Lockhead's perforated glass ventilator can either be set in the sash, or fixed outside of it in a frame for the whole width of the opening, air being admitted by moving the sash. For the like purpose are such inventions as Moore's louvre ventilators in a sash pane; Boyle's draughtless window ventilators, being a fine gauze of wire set in a pane of glass, and used with or without a glass cover; and the eircular glass "revolving" ventilator. Glass balusters and handrails; pilasters for chimneypieces; door handles, knobs, and plates; mirror frames; trays for dairies; cut crystal and opal letters; Pratt's patent process of gilding by precipitation (1886), are among other useful inventions in this material. See Pavement Lights, par 22251.

2231b. Coloured or stained glass. We can only here name the varieties. There are three modes of colouring glass: I. Pot metal glass, in which the colour is mixed up with the molten mass. II Flashed, covered, or coated glass, formed by uniting a thin layer of coloured glass with another layer, either of a different colour or colourless. III. Painted glass, the white substance being painted on, and then the colour or pigment burnt in. The colouring materials are in all cases metallic substances. Such are the methods by which all coloured glass windows are produced.

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