work of arrangements of modern sanitation. If the client be willing to carry out these elaborate notions, there can be no objection to his having them; but for the larger class the following will, in ordinary cases, be sufficient to arrest danger; first supposing that the water closets, sinks, and cisterns, are in a proper state of repair, and that the drains or other pipes are all clear.

1888. "Take up the paving of the front area where the main drain runs through to the sewer. Cut out a length or so of the drain, and build, in 9-inch brickwork, a shaft 3 feet by 2 feet. Render it inside in Portland cement. At the bottom let in a half drain pipe, and at the sewer side fix a syphon trap. Connect with the shaft two 4-inch drain pipes, one on either side of the shaft; or carry up a 4-inch galvanized iron pipe & short distance to form inlets. If a rain-water pipe be near at hand, the joints may be caulked, and it may be connected with the shaft by one of the pipes; carry it well up above the roof, and treat it as the outlet ventilator. If a rain-water pipe is not near at hand, carry up from the shaft, and well above the roof, a separate 4-inch galvanized iron ventilating pipe. Cover the shaft with a York stone, or iron cover, and the drain job is done. As regards the water supply, the cistern should be well cleaned out periodically, say once a month, and there will not be much to fear in that direction."-Woodward, London as it is and as it might be, read at Royal Institute of British Architects, and printed in Transactions, new series, vol. ii. p. 46.

SECT. II.

BRICKLAYING AND TILING.

1889. Bricklaying, or the art of building with bricks, or of uniting them by cement or mortar into various forms, includes, in the metropolis, and mostly in the provinces, the business of walling, tiling, and paving with bricks or tiles, and sometimes plastering; but this last is rarely, if ever, undertaken by the London bricklayer; though in the country the trades of bricklaying and plastering are usually united, and not unfrequently that of masonry also. The materials used have been described in a previous part of the work, to which the reader is referred (1811. et seq.).

SHORING.

1889a. It is advisible that the student should be acquainted with the mechanical principles involved in the construction of shores, and the nature of the forces which are brought into play. G. H. Blagrove, in Shoring and its Application, 1887, writes: "Though the student has to learn the principles of Shoring, the practising architect has to apply them, often in the utmost haste, to prevent the most disastrous consequences, and occasionally surrounded with the most perplexing difficulties. Viollet-leDuc says: Nothing enhances the respect of workmen for the architect like his being ready to shore properly... and nothing is more satisfying to the eye than a system of shoring well combined and well executed.'" The author divides his book into Raking, Flying and Dead Shoring, Needling, Centreing, Timbering for Excavations, Underpinning, and Straightening Walls. In Raking Shores is explained the danger of using timber unnecessarily heavy for the purpose, and the danger of the vertical sinking of a wall, causing the shores to separate it; also the advantage of shoring against the floors, and the proper precautions to be taken for shoring, of a more permanent and efficient kind than the rough and ready shoring so often resorted to. In the case of Flying Shores there is the risk of their sagging, though this may generally be obviated by using trusses, particularly when the flying shores are in more than one height. Little has to be said about "dead shores," but the rough way in which they are often put in is detrimental to the building. In the chapter on Needling the necessary precautious are carefully stated, but the proper calculation of the strength of the needles is not urged. The devices which have been put in practice at times to save expense, viz., the iron frames which enable the bressummer to be rolled in lengthwise, the case where the bressummer has to be enclosed in the frames, then got in parallel and rolled end on to its place, and where it is only put in parallel, are also explained. Two devices are not noticed one where the middle of a wall has to be removed, but where an arch can be turned; the arch form is marked in chalk on both sides of the wall, holes beginning at the skewbacks are successively cut to the shape of the arch by men working on both sides, and the segments are then built in and wedged up, until the whole arch is turned without using needling, and, when the cement has set, the brickwork below is cut away. The other is executed thus: narrow iron girders, not exceeding one-fourth of the thickness of the wall, are cut in, and fixed on both sides, then York stone is pinned in on the top of

them, connecting the two girders, which are also bolted together. The brickwork below is then removed. This system will in most cases supersede all others. Careful advi e is given for shoring up defective arches and vaults; and a French plan of supporting centreing on wood by pistons fitted into iron cylinders filled with sand; by this means the centreing can be accurately slackened by letting out the sand. The familiar methods of Timbering Excavations are given. Where the earth will not s'and, sheet piling is recommended, 4 ft. wide, but 4 ft. 6 in. is generally considered to be the least width in which men can conveniently excavate. In Underpinning, the author points out the difficulties of shoring when the defects have arisen from the ground being too soft; he shows the shoring necessary for crushed piers and columns, and adverts to the movements occasioned by underpinning, on parts apparently too distant to be affected by them. Descriptions are given of the methods employed in straightening walls, as at Armagh Cathedral, Beverley Minster, and St. Albans Abbey. (G. Aitchison, in R.I.B.A, Proceedings. The Mechanics of Shoring, in Building News, Sept. 14, 1877, p. 249.)

1890. The tools used by the bricklayer, who has always an attendant labourer to supply him with bricks, mortar, &c., are-1. A brick trowel, for taking up and spreading the mortar, and also for cutting the bricks to any required length. 2. A hammer, for cutting holes and chases in brickwork. 3. The plumb rule, being a thin rule, 6 or 7 inches wide, with a line and plummet swinging in the middle of it, in order to ascertain that the walls are carried up perpendicularly. 4. The level, which is about 10 or 12 feet long, with a vertical rule attached to it, in which a line and plummet are suspended, the use of which is to try the level of the walls at various stages of the building as it proceeds, and particularly at the window sills and wall plates. 5. The large square, for setting out right angles. 6. The rod, for measuring lengths, usually 5 or 10 feet long. 7. The jointing rule, about 8 or 10 feet long, as one or two bricklayers are to use it, and 4 inches broad, with which they run or mark the centre of each joint of the brickwork. 8. The jointer, which is of iron, shaped like the letter S. 9. The compasses, for traversing arches and vaults. 10. The raker, a piece of iron having two knees or angles, dividing it into three parts at right angles to each other, the two end parts being pointed and equally long, and standing upon contrary sides of the middle part. Its use is to rake out decayed mortar from the joints of old walls for the purpose of replacing it with new mortar, or, as it is called, pointing them. 11. The hod, which is a wooden trough shut close across at one extremity and open at the other. The sides consist of two boards at right angles to each other; from where they meet a handle projects at right angles to their union. It is used by the labourer for conveying bricks and mortar to the bricklayer; for which purpose, when he has the latter office to perform, he strews dry sand on its inside, to prevent the mortar from sticking. 12. The line pins, which are of iron, for fastening and stretching the line at proper intervals of the wall, that each course may be kept straight in the face and level on the bed. The pins have a line attached to them of 60 ft. to each pin. 13. The rammer, used for trying the ground, as well as for beating it solid to the utmost degree of compression. 13. The iron crow and pick are, for breaking and cutting through walls or moving heavy weights. 14. The grinding stone, for sharpening axes, hammers, and other tools. The following ten articles relate entirely to the preparation and cutting of gauged arches. 15. The banker, which is a bench from 6 to 12 ft. long, according to the number of workmen who are to work at it. It is 2 ft. 6 inches to 3 ft. wide, and about 2 ft. 8 in. high. Its use is for preparing the bricks for rubbed arches, and for other gauged work. 16. The camber slip, a piece of wood, usually about half an inch thick, with at least one curved edge, rising about 1 inch in 6 feet, for drawing the sofite line of straight arches. When the other edge is curved, it rises about half that of the other, that is, about half an inch in 6 feet, for the purpose of drawing the upper line of the arch, so as to prevent it becoming hollow by the settling of the arch. The upper edge is not always cambered, many preferring it straight. The slip being sufficiently long, it answers the width of many openings; and when the bricklayer has drawn his arch, he delivers it to the carpenter to prepare the centre for it. 17. The rubbing stone. This is of a cylindrical form, about 20 inches diameter, but may be less. It is fixed at one end of the banker, upon a bed of mortar. After the bricks for the gauged work have been rough-shaped by the axe, they are rubbed smooth on the rubbing stone. The headers and stretchers, in return, which are not axed, are called rubbed returns and rubbed headers and stretchers. 18. The bedding stone, which is a straight piece of marble 18 or 20 inches in length, of any thickness, and about 8 or 10 inches wide. It is used to try the rubbed side of a brick, which must be first squared to prove whether its surface be straight, so as to fit it upon the leading skew back, or leading end of the arch. 19. The square, for trying the bedding of the bricks, and squaring the sofites across the breadth of the bricks. 20. The bevel, for drawing the sofite line on the face of the bricks. 21. The mould, for forming the face and back of the brick, in order to reduce it in thickness to its proper taper, one edge of the mould being brought close to the bed of the brick when squared. The mould has a notch for every course of the arch. 22. The scribe, a spike or large nail, ground to a sharp point, to mark the bricks on the face and back by the tapering edges of the mould, for the

purpose of cutting them. 23. The tin saw, used for cutting the sofite lines about one eighth of an inch deep, first by the edge of the level on the face of the brick, then by the edge of the square on the bed of the brick, in order to enter the brick axe, and to keep the brick from spalting. The saw is also used for cutting the sofite through its breadth in the direction of the tapering lines, drawn upon the face and back edge of the brick; but the cutting is always made deeper on the face and back of the brick than in the middle of its thickness, for the above-mentioned purpose of entering the axe. The saw is also used for cutting the false joints of headers and stretchers. 24. The brick axe, for axing off the sofites of bricks to the saw cuttings, and the sides to the lines drawn by the scribes. The bricks being always rubbed smooth after axing, the more truly they are axed the less labour will be requisite in rubbing them. 25. The templet. This is used for taking the length of the stretcher and width of the header. 26. The chopping block, for reducing the bricks to their intended size and form by axing them. It is made of any piece of wood that comes to hand, from 6 to 8 inches square, and generally supported upon two 14-inch brick piers, if only two men work at it; but if four men, the chopping block must be lengthened and supported by three piers, and so on according to the number employed at it. It is about 2 ft. 3 in. in height. 27. The float-stone, which is used for rubbing curved work to a smooth surface, such as the cylindrical backs and spherical heads of niches, to take out the axe marks. It is, before application to them, made of a form reversed to the surface whereon it is applied, so as to coincide with it as nearly as possible in finishing.

Bonding.

1891. Before adverting to the bond, as it is technically called, of brick walling, which is the form of connection of the bricks with each other, it must be observed that in working walls not more than 4 or 5 feet should be brought up at a time; for as, in setting, the mortar shrinks and a general subsidence takes place, the part first brought up, if too large in quantity, will have come to its bearing before the adjacent parts are brought up, and thus fissures in the work and unequal settlements will take place. In carrying up any particular part above another, it should always be regularly sloped back to receive the adjoining parts to the right and to the left. On no account should any part of a wall be carried higher than one scaffold, except for some very urgent object.

1892. Previous to the reign of William and Mary (1689-1702), brick buildings in England were constructed in what is called English bond; and subsequent to the reign in question, when, in building as in many other cases, Dutch fashions were introduced, much to the injury of our houses' strength, the workmen have become so infatuated with what is called Flemish bond, that it is difficult to drive them out of it. To the introduction of the latter has been attributed (in many cases with justice) the splitting of walls into two thicknesses; to prevent which, expedients have been adopted which would be altogether unnecessary if a return to the general use of English bond could be established.

1893. In chap. i. sect. ix. of this book (1503. et seq.) we have spoken generally on walls; our observations here, therefore, in respect of them, will be confined to brick walls and their bond.

EISVATION.

1894. English bond is that disposition of bricks in a wall in which (expect at the quoins) the courses are alternately composed of headers and stretchers. In brick walling, and indeed in stone walling also, a course means the horizontal layer of bricks or stones of which the wall is composed, being contained between two faces parallel to the horizon, and terminated on each side by the vertical face of the wall. The mass formed by brick or stones in an arch are also termed courses, but receive the name of concentric courses. The term header is applied to a brick or stone whose small head or end is seen in the external face of the wall; and that of stretcher to a brick or stone whose length is parallel to the face of the wall. English bond is to be understood as a continuation either of header or stretcher, continued throughout in the same course or horizontal layer, and hence described as consisting of alternate layers of headers and stretchers (fig. 616.), the former serving to bind the wall together in a transverse direction or widthwise, and thus prevent its splitting, whilst the latter binds it lengthwise, or in a longitudinal direction. None but the English bond prevents the former occurrence, as work executed in this way when so undermined as to cause a fracture, separates, but rarely breaks through the solid brick, as if the wall were composed of one entire piece.

1895. The ancient Roman brickwork was executed on this

Fig. 616.

PIAN.

principle; and its extraordinary durability is as much to be attributed to that sort of work being used for bonding it together, as to its extraordinary thickness.

1896. In this, as well as Flemish bond, to which we shall presently come, it will be observed, that the length of a brick being but 9 inches, and its width 44 inches, in order to break the joints (that is, that one joint may not come over another), it becomes necessary near the angles to interpose a quarter brick or bat, a, called a queen closer, in order to preserve the continuity of the bond in the heading course. The bond, however, may equally be preserved by a three-quarter bat at the angle in the stretching course, in which case this last bat is called a king closer. In each case an horizontal lap of two inches and a half is left for the next header. The figure above given is that of a two-brick or 18-inch wall, but the student will have no difficulty in drawing, on due consideration of it, a diagram of the bond for any other thickness of wall; recollecting, first, that each course is formed either of headers or stretchers. Secondly, that every brick in the same course and on the same face of the wall must be laid in the same direction, and that in no instance is a brick to be placed with its whole length against the side of another, but in such way that the end of one may reach to the middle of the others that lie contiguous to it, excepting in the outside of the stretching course, where three-quarter bricks, or king closers, will of course be necessary at the ends, to prevent a continued upright joint in the face of the work. Thirdly, that a wall crossing at right angles with another will have all the bricks of the same level course in the same parallel direction, whereby the angles will be completely bonded. We shall close these observations with a recommendation to the young architect, founded on our own experience, on no account, in any building where soundness of work is a desideratum, to permit any other than English bond to be executed under his superintendence.

1897. Flemish bond is that wherein the same course consists alternately of headers and stretchers, which, in appearance, some may fancy superior to that just described. Such is not our opinion. We think that the semblance of strength has much to do with that of beauty in architecture. But there is in the sufferance of Flemish bond a vice by which strength is altogether lost sight of, which we shall now describe. It was formerly, though now partially, the practice to face the front walls of houses with guaged or rubbed bricks, or with at least a superior species of brick, as the malm stock; in the former cases, the bricks being reduced in thickness, and laid with a flat thin joint frequently, what the workmen call a putty joint, for the external face, the outer and inner work of the same courses in the same wall, not corresponding in height, could not be bonded together except where occasionally the courses fell even, where a header was introduced from the outside to tie or bond the front to the internal work. Hence, as the work would not admit of this, except occasionally, from the want of correspondence between the interior and exterior courses, the headers would be introduced only where such correspondence took place, which would only occur in a height of several courses. Thus a wall two bricks in thickness, if faced on both sides, was very little indeed better than three thin walls, the two outer half a brick thick, and the middle one a brick or 9 inches thick. Bricklayers having little regard for their character will, if not prevented by the architect, not only practise this expedient, but will also, unless vigilantly watched, when a better sort of brick is used for the facing, cut the headers in half to effect a paltry saving of the better material. In walls of one brick and a half in thickness, the strength of the wall is not diminished by the use of Flemish bond so much as in those of greater thickness, as may be seen by the diagram (fig. 617.). Many expedients have been invented to obviate the inconveniences of Flemish bond; but we think it rather useful to omit them, lest we should be considered as parties to a toleration of its use, for the continuation whereof no substantial reason can be assigned. As we nave before observed, all that can be alleged in its favour is a fancy in respect of its appearance: but were the English mode executed with the same attention and neatness bestowed on the Flemish method, we should say it was equally beautiful; and therefore we shall thus close our notice of it.

ELEVATION.

Fig. 617

PLAN,

1898. The two principal matters to be considered in brick walling are, first, that the wall be as strong as possible in the direction of its length. Secondly, that it be so connected in its transverse direction that it should not be capable of separating in thicknesses. To produce the first, independent of the extraneous aid of bond timbers, plates, &c., it is clear that the method which affords the greatest quantity of longitudinal bond is to be preferred, as in the transverse direction is that which gives the greatest quantity of bond in direction of the thickness. We will, to exemplify this, take a piece of walling 4 bricks long, 4 bricks high, and 2 bricks thick, of English bond in this will occur 32 stretchers, 24 headers, and 16 half headers to break the joint, or prevent one joint falling over another. Now, in an equal piece of walling constructed in Flemish bond, there will occur only 20

stretchers and 42 headers; from which the great superiority of English bond may be at once inferrea.

1899. Bond Timber should be used in pieces as long as circumstances will admit. In walls where the thickness will allow of it, some prefer that the timber should be laid in the centre, so that when it decays no material damage is done. Also that in case of fire, the bond timber is not affected by it. If so placed, when dressings of wood are required, wooden plugs must be provided to which to secure them. When a fire occurs and the bond is next the inside face, it is burnt out, and the strength of a thin wall, say 9 or 14 inches thick, is seriously affected thereby. Two or three tiers in the height of the room are usually employed.

1899a. However useful timber may be in bonding thin walls whilst the brickwork is yet green, it has for some years been entirely superseded by hoop iron bond. This consists of narrow and thin strips of iron (see SMITHERY) laid between two courses of bricks. The iron should be tarred and sanded, the former as a preservative from rust, the latter to afford a firmer hold to the mortar. Some authorities go so far as to state that hoop iron bond, unless it is set in a cement course, is not so efficient as wood bond. A tier of bond is placed in each three feet of height, one strip of iron to each half brick. In extensive works, or in special cases, two, three, or more, tiers are recommended. In addition to the use of concrete on clay soils, it may be occasionally useful to build all the footings for four or six courses in height of brickwork in cement, each course well bonded with hoop iron, laid both longitudinally and diagonally; it is perhaps better than a course of Yorkshire stone (par. 1882.) as the bond is continuous. During the execution of the works, the iron is continued through all openings as with wood bond; the latter is cut away when requisite, but the former should be turned down against the brickwork. The laps at a junction should be carefully made to secure the continuity of the tie. An addition to the plain band of iron has been introduced, and Tyerman's patent notched hoop iron bond has been extensively employed. It consists in forming a slight notch at intervals of 11 inches on both sides alternately, and turning it up in succession, in contrary directions, forming a triangular piece, whereby a better key is obtained upon the bricks and mortar.

1900. Mortar joints. The propriety of using mortar beds as thin as possible, has been inculcated in this work, and most specifications state that four courses of brickwork formed of the ordinary sized bricks are not to rise more than 113; sometimes 12 inches is named, as the joints should not exceed ths of an inch. When good mortar is used that sets rapidly, the joint might be thicker than thus allowed. In Roman and most Eastern work, the joint was usually 1 and 1 inches thick, and where the mortar has been good, such buildings so executed are sound after centuries of wear. "In modern practice, in all masonry and brickwork where strength is required rather than ornament, thick beds and joints of good mortar will be useful. Thin bricks or tiles will also be better than thick bricks, as the material will be better burned, and consequently more enduring. More good mortar can also be used, which in such work gives strength." Such is the practical opinion of R. Rawlinson (Builder, xxi. page 152), who declares that "the proportion of mortar to rubble stonework should be about 1 to 3, that is, in 4 cubic yards of rubble wall there should not be less than 1 cubic yard of mortar. In brickwork (ordinary bricks) the proportion will be 1 to 4. If thin bricks be used, or if very small stone be used for rubble-work, the proportions may be as 1 to 1." It has been urged that the peculiarity of carly Norman masonry, even of the period of bishop Gundulph, is that of very thick beds of mortar. Mr. Rawlinson further adds, "As a general rule, buildings whether of marble, limestone, sandstone, or of brick work alone, or of brick and terracotta combined, which are ornamental in character, must all have thin joints and beds. Thick beds and joints of mortar would destroy the harmony of design by deteriorating the appearance of labour bestowed on the rich materials in such buildings."

1900a. The fine joints of rubbed brickwork are formed by lime putty, being mortar reduced to the consistency of cream; the bricks are dipped into it to take up a coating, and then driven close upon each other. Ashlar work is usually set in a putty formed of lime, white lead, and a small quantity of very fine sand.

1900b. The surfaces of many of the machine-made bricks are so hard as to prevent the mortar sticking, unless first coated with sand. Many walls on being pulled down have shown that the mortar had had no hold upon the bricks; a key had only been formed between two bricks by the holes at their ends. A wall, though built in first-rate work, was easily shaken to pieces, even after it had been built four or five years. Bricks, especially in hot weather, should be soaked in water (par. 1832a.); and even some of the courses of bricks should be sprinkled with water, to prevent the brick absorbing all moisture from the mortar before the lime has had time to crystallise. The walls, however, take longer to dry; as is also the case when grouting (par. 1860.) is employed. An interesting communication from Norway has been printed in the Journals of January, 1888, explaining how brickwork is carried on there in the winter;" such walls dry quicker than those rai ed in summer." The description is too long to be here further adverted to.