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afterwards observes, "The woods about Pontus furnish such abundance of timber, that they build in the following manner. Two trees are laid level on the earth, right and left, at such distance from each other as will suit the length of the trees which are to cross and

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tices, which the thickness of the trees alternately leave, is filled in with chips and mud. On a similar principle they form their roofs, except that gradually reducing the length of the trees which traverse from side to side, they assume a pyramidal form. They are covered with boughs, and thus, after a rude fashion of vaulting, their quadrilateral roofs are formed." The northern parts of Germany, Poland, and Russia still exhibit traces of this method of building, which is also found in Florida, Louisiana, and elsewhere, in various places. See fig. 2.

6. We shall not, in this place, pursue the discussion on the timber hut, which has certainly, with great appearance of probability, been so often said to contain within it the types of Grecian architecture, but shall, under that head, enlarge further on the subject.

SECT. III.

DIFFERENT SORTS OF DWELLINGS ARISING FROM DIFFERENT OCCUPATIONS.

7. The construction of the early habitations of mankind required little skill and as little knowledge. A very restricted number of tools and machines was required. The method of felling timber, which uncivilised nations still use, namely, by fire, might have served all purposes at first. The next step would be the shaping of hard and infrangible stones into cutting tools, as is still the practice in some parts of the continent of America. These, as the metals became known, would be supplanted by tools formed of them. Among the Peruvians, at their invasion by the Spaniards, the only tools in use were the hatchet and the adze; and we may fairly assume that similar tools were the only ones known at a period of high antiquity. The saw, nails, the hammer, and other instruments of carpentry were unknown. The Greeks, who, as Jacob Bryant says, knew nothing of their own history, ascribe the invention of the instruments necessary for working materials to Dædalus; but only a few of these were known even in the time of Homer, who confines himself to the hatchet with two edges, the plane, the auger, and the rule. He particularises neither the square, compasses, nor saw. Neither the Greek word πpiwv (a saw), nor its equivalent, is to be found in his works. Dædalus is considered, however, by Goguet as a fabulous person altogether, the word meaning, according to him, nothing more than a skilful workman, a meaning which, he observes, did not escape the notice of Pausanias. The surmise is borre out by the non-mention of so celebrated a character, if he had ever existed, by Homer, and, afterwards, by Herodotus. The industry and perseverance of man, however, in the end, overcame the difficulties of construction. For wood, which was the earliest material, at length were substituted bricks, stone, marble, and the like; and edifices were reared of unparalleled magnificence and solidity. It seems likely, that bricks would have been in use for a considerable period before stone was employed in building. They were, probably, after moulding, merely subjected to the sun's rays to acquire hardness. These were the materials whereof the Tower of Babel was constructed. These also, at a very remote period, were used by the Egyptians. Tiles seem to have been of as high an antiquity as bricks, and to have been used, as in the present day, for covering roofs.

8 The period at which wrought stone was originally used for architectural purposes is

quite unknown, as is that in which cement of any kind was first employed as the meet of uniting masonry. They were both, doubtless, the invention of that race which we !,mentioned as cultivators of land, to whom is due the introduction of architecture prom so called. To them solid and durable edifices were necessary as soon as they load t upon a spot for the settlement of themselves and their families

9. Chaldæa, Egypt, Phoenicia, and China are the first countries on record in wi architecture, worthy the name, made its appearance. They had certainly attained ez siderable proficiency in the art at a very early period; though it is doubtful, as respe the three first, whether their reputation is not founded rather on the enormous masses * their works, than on beauty and sublimity of form. Strabo mer tions many magte works which he attributes to Semiramis; and observes that, besides those in Babyk there were monuments of Babylonian industry throughout Asia. He mentions top | * altars), and strong walls and battlements to various cities, as also subterranean passags communication, aqueducts for the conveyance of water under ground, and passages of 27. length, upwards, by stairs. Bridges are also mentioned by him (lib, xvi. ), Moses has: served the names of three cities in Chaldæa which were founded by Nimrod (Gen. x. 1 Ashur, we are told, built Nineveh; and (Gen. xix. 4.) as early as the age of Jacob .. Abraham, towns had been established in Palestine. The Chinese attribute to Fohi ta encircling of cities and towns with walls; and in respect of Egypt, there is no ques that in Homer's time the celebrated city of Thebes had been long in existence. works in India are of very early date; and we shall hereafter offer some remarks, speaking of the extraordinary monument of Stonehenge, tending to prove, as Jacob Bsupposes, that the earliest buildings of both nations, as well as those of Phœnicia and o countries, were crected by colonies of some great original nation. If the Peruvians : Mexicans, without the aid of carriages and horses, without scaffolding, cranes, and of machines used in building, without even the use of iron, were enabled to raise monume which are still the wonder of travellers, it would seem that the mechanical arts were indispensable to the progress of architecture; but it is much more likely that these w understood at an exceedingly remote period in Asia, and in so high a degree as to have their aid in the erection of some of the stupendous works to which we have alluded.

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10. The art of working stone, which implies the use of iron and a knowledge of · method of tempering it, was attributed to Athōthis, the successor of Menes. It sec however, possible that the ancients were in possession of some secret for preparing br tools which were capable of acting upon stone. Be that as it may, no country could :. been called upon earlier than Egypt to adopt stone as a material, for the climate does favour the growth of timber; hence stone, marble, and granite were thus forced into us and we know that, besides the facility of transport by means of canals, as early as the t: of Joseph waggons were in use. (Gen. xlv. 19.) We shall hereafter investigate the hy thesis of the architecture of Greece being founded upon types of timber buildings, me observing here, by the way, that many of the columns and entablatures of Egypt existence long before the earliest temples of Greece, and therefore that, without recurre to timber construction, prototypes for Grecian architecture are to be found in the venera remains of Egypt, where it is quite certain wood was not generally employed as a mate.. and where the subterranean architecture of the country offers a much more probable or f of the style.

CHAP. II.

ARCHITECTURE OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

SECT. I.

DRUIDICAL AND CELTIC ARCHITECTURE.

11. If rudeness, want of finish, and the absence of all appearance of art, be criteria judgment on the age of monuments of antiquity, the wonderful remains of Abury = Stonehenge must be considered the most ancient that have preserved their form so as indicate the original plan on which they were constructed. The late Mr. Godfrey Higg a gentleman of the highest intellectual attainments, in his work on the Celtic Druids lished 1829), has shown, as we think satisfactorily, that the Druids of the British Isles = a colony of the first race of people, learned, enlightened, and descendants of the person's s escaped the deluge on the borders of the Caspian Sea; that they were the carliest oc piers of Greece, Italy, France, and Britain, and arrived in those places by a route re

long the forty-fifth parallel of north latitude; that, in a similar manner, colonies advanced rom the same great nation by a southern line through Asia, peopling Syria and Africa, and rriving at last by sea through the Pillars of Hercules at Britain; that the languages of he western world were the same, and that one system of letters-viz. that of the Irish Druids-pervaded the whole, was common to the British Isles and Gaul, to the inhabitants of Italy, Greece, Syria, Arabia, Persia, and Hindostan; and that one of the two alphabets of the same system) in which the Irish MSS. are written-viz. the Beth-luis-nion-came by Gaul through Britain to Ireland; and that the other—the Bobeloth—came through the Straits of Gibraltar. Jacob Bryant thinks that the works called Cyclopean were executed t a remote age by colonies of some great original nation; the only difference between his pinion and that of Mr. Higgins being, that the latter calls them Druids, or Celts, from the ime of the dispersion above alluded to.

12. The unhewn stones, whose antiquity and purport is the subject of this section, are bound in Hindostan, where they are denominated “pandoo koolies," and are attributed to a abulous being named Pandoo and his sons. With a similarity of character attesting their ommon origin, we find them in India, on the shores of the Levant and Mediterranean, in Belgium, Denmark, Sweden and Norway, in France, and on the shores of Britain from the traits of Dover to the Land's End in Cornwall, as well as in many of the interior parts of the country. They are classed as follows: 1. The single stone, pillar, or obelisk. . Circles of stones of different number and arrangement. 3. Sacrificial stones, 4. Cromechs and cairns. 5. Logan stones. 6. Tolmen or colossal stones. 13. (1.) Single Stones.

ngle stones is recorded.

Passages abound in Scripture in which the practice of erecting The reader on this point may refer to Gen. xxviii. 18., Judges, ix. 1 Sam. vii. 12., 2 Sam. xx. 8., Joshua, xxiv. 27. The single stone might be an emblem f the generative power of Nature, and thence an object of idolatry. That mentioned in e first scriptural reference, which Jacob set up in his journey to visit Laban, his uncle, and hich he had used for his pillow, seems, whether from the vision he had while sleeping upon or from some other cause, to have become to him an object of singular veneration; for e set it up, and poured oil upon it, and called it " Bethel " (the house of God). It is urious to observe that some pillars in Cornwall, assumed to have been erected by the Phoicians, still retain the appellation Bothel. At first, these stones were of no larger dimenion than a man could remove, as in the instance just cited, and that of the Gilgal of oshua (Josh, iv. 20.); but that which was set up under an oak at Shechem (ibid. xxiv. 26.), as a great stone. And here we may notice another singular coincidence, that of the Bothel a Cornwall being set up in a place which, from its proximi y to an oak which was near the pot, was called Bothel-ac; the last syllable being the Saxon for an oak. It appears from he Scriptures that these single stones were raised on various occasions; sometimes, as a the case of Jacob's Bethel and of Samuel's Ebenezer, to commemorate instances of ivine interposition; sometimes to record a covenant, as in the case of Jacob and Laban Gen. xxxi. 48.); sometimes, like the Greek stela, as sepulchral stones, as in the case of Rachel's grave (Gen. xxxvi. 20.), 1700 years B.C., according to the usual reckoning. They ́ere occasionally, also, set up to the memory of individuals, as in the instance of Absalom's illar and others. The pillars and altars of the patriarchs appear to have been erected in onour of the only true God, Jehovah; but wherever the Canaanites appeared, they seem › have been the objects of idolatrous worship, and to have been dedicated to Baal or the in, or the other false deities whose altars Moses ordered the Israelites to destroy. The milarity of pillars of single stones almost at the opposite sides of the earth, leaves no doubt 1 our mind of their being the work of a people of one common origin widely scattered; nd the hypotheses of Bryant and Higgins sufficiently account for their appearance in laces so remote from each other. In consequence, says the latter writer, of some cause, no hatter what, the Hive, after the dispersion, casted and sent forth its swarms. One of the irgest descended, according to Genesis (x. 2.), from Gomer, went north, and then west, ressed by succeeding swarms, till it arrived at the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, and ultiately colonised Britain. Another branch, observes the same author, proceeded through armatia southward to the Euxine (Cimmerian Bosphorus); another to Italy, founding e states of the Umbrii and the Cimmerii, at Cuma, near Naples. Till the time of the tomans these different lines of march, like so many sheepwalks, were without any walled ities. Some of the original tribe found their way into Greece, and between the Carpathian ountains and the Alps into Gaul, scattering a few stragglers as they passed into the eautiful valleys of the latter, where traces of them in Druidical monuments and language re occasionally found. Wherever they settled, if the conjecture is correct, they employed emselves in recovering the lost arts of their ancestors.

14. To the Canaanites of Tyre and Sidon may be chiefly attributed the introduction of nese primeval works into Britain. The Tyrians, inhabiting a small slip of barren land, ere essentially and necessarily a commercial people, and became the most expert and Iventurous sailors of antiquity. It has been supposed that the constancy of the needle to ne pole, "that path which no fowl knoweth, and which the vulture's eye hath not seen,*

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was known to the Tyrians; and, indeed, it seems scarcely possible that, by the help of t stars alone, they should have been able to maintain a commerce for tin on the shores Britain, whose western coast furnished that metal in abundance, and whose islands te

Scilly) were known by the title of Cassiterides, or ". islands. In this part of Britain there seems unquest a able evidence that they settled a colony, and were L architects of Stonehenge, Abury, and other similar w in the British islands, In these they might have be assisted by that part of the swarm which reached a.. shores through Gaul; or it is possible that the works question may be those of the latter only, of whom trac exist in Britany at the monument of Carnac, wher it is computed 4000 stones still remain. From amu. the number of pillars of this kind still to be seen England, we give (pg. 3.) that standing at Rudstone the east riding of Yorkshire. It is described by Dras in his Eboracum, as "coarse rag stone or millstone F and its weight is computed at between 40 and 50 to In form (the sides being slightly concave) it approa to an ellipse on the plan, the breadth being 5 ft. 10 and the thickness 2 ft. 3 in., in its general dimen Its height is 24 ft. ; and, according to a brief acces communicated to the late Mr. Pegge, in the year 1 (Archeologia, vol. v. p. 95.), its depth underground equals its height above, as appeared f-an experiment made by the late Sir William Strickland."

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Fig. 3.

PILLAR AT BUDSTONE

15. (2.) Circles of Stone.-The Israelites were in the habit of arranging stones to T sent the twelve tribes of Israel (Exod. xxiv. 4.), and for another purpose. (Deut. XXVIA And in a circular form we find them set up by Joshua's order on the passage of the Israe through Jordan to Gilgal (252); a word in which the radical Gal or Gil (signifying wheel) is doubled to denote the continued repetition of the action. In this last case, Jun.. made the arrangement a type of the Lord rolling away their reproach from them.

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16. Though traces of this species of monument are found in various parts of the wor even in America, we shall confine our observations to those of Abury and Stonebemerely referring, by way of enumeration, to the places where they are to be found. we mention Rolbrich in Oxfordshire, the Hurlers in Cornwall, Long Meg and her daug in Cumberland, remains in Derbyshire, Devonshire, Dorsetshire, at Stanton Dre Somersetshire, and in Westmoreland. They are common in Wales, and are found in Western Isles. There are examples in Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and var. parts of Germany. Clarke, in his description of the hill of Kushunlu Tepe in the Tra observes, that all the way up, the traces of former works may be noticed, and that, or summit, there is a small oblong area, six yards long and two broad, exhibiting vestiges of highest antiquity; the stones forming the inclosure being as rude as those of Tiry Argolis, and encircled by a grove of oaks covering the top of this conical mountain. entrance is from the south. Upon the east and west, outside of the trees, are stones rang like what we in England call Druidical circles. Three circles of stones are knows America, one of which stands upon a high rock on the banks of the river Winnipe The stupendous monument of Carnac in Britany, of which we have above made ment. is not of a circular form; the stones there being arranged in eleven straight lines, r-30 to 33 ft. apart, some of which are of enormous size. They are said to have forme extended three leagues along the coast A description of this monument is give vol xxii. of the Archeologia; and in Gailhabaud, Monumens, 4to, Paris, 1842-52.

17. Abury, or Avebury, in Wiltshire, of which we give a view in a restored (fig. 4.), is a specimen of this species of building, in which the climax of magnifice. was attained. Stukely, who examined the ruins when in much better preservation tha present, says, "that the whole figure represented a snake transmitted through a cire and that, "to make their representation more natural, they artfully carried it over a varz of elevations and depressions, which, with the curvature of the avenues, produces sufficier. the desired effect. To make it still more elegant and picture-like, the head of the snak carried up the southern promontory of Hackpen Hill, towards the village of West Ken nay, the very name of the hill is derived from this circumstance;" for ucan, he observe nifies a serpent in the Chaldaic language. Dr. S. then goes on to state, "that the dra was a name, amongst the first-learned nations, for the very ancient sort of temples of they could give no account, nor well explain their meaning upon it." The figure of serpent extended two miles in length; and but a very faint idea can now be formed of it was in its original state. Two double circles, one to the north and the other to south of the centre, were placed within the large circle, which formed the principal bod the serpent, and from which branched out the head to Hackpen Hill, in the directi

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West Kennet, as one avenue; and the other, the tail, in the direction of Beckhampton. Dr. Stukely makes the number of stones, 652 in all, as under:

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Cove and altar stone, north circle 4

Of these, only seventy-six stones remained in the circle was enclosed by a trench or vallum upwards

W

Stones.

652

Kennet avenue in 1722. The large of 50 ft. in depth and between 60 and 70 ft. in width, leaving entrances open where the avenues intersected it. The colossal mound, called "Silbury hill," close to the Bath road, was probably connected in some way with the circle we have described, from the circumstance of the Roman road to Bath, made long afterwards, being diverted to avoid it. Dr. Owen thinks that the Abury circle was one of three primary circles in Great Britain, and that Silbury bill was the pile of Cyvrangon (heaping) characterised in the 14th Welsh triad; but the conjecture affords us no assistance in determining the people by whom the monument was raised. If it be in its arrangement intended to represent a serpent, it becomes immediately connected with ophiolatry, or serpent worship, a sin which beset the Israelites, and which would stamp it as proceeding from the central N stamen of the hypothesis on which Mr. Higgins sets out. See Observ ations on Dracontia, by the Rev. John Bathurst Deane, Archau. vol. xxv.

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Fig. 5.

PLAN OF STONEHENGE.

"Eoliam Pitanen a læva parte relinquit,

Factaque de saxo longi simulacra Draconis,"-OVID, Met. vii. 357.

which is a picturesque description of Abury.

18. Stonehenge, on Salisbury Plain, about seven miles from Salisbury and two miles

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