The Paris pound (poids de marc of Charlemagne) contained 9216 Paris grains; it was divided into 16 ounces, each ounce into 8 gros, and each gros into 72 grains. It is equal to 7561 English troy grains.

=

The English troy pound of 12 ounces contains 5760 troy grains 7021 Paris grains. The English avoirdupois pound of 16 ounces contains 7000 English troy grains, and is equal to 8538 Paris grains.

To reduce Paris grains to English troy grains, divide by
Or, to reduce English troy grains to Paris grains, multiply by J
To reduce Paris ounces to English troy, divide by
To reduce English troy ounces to Paris, multiply by

1-2189

}1·0

1.015734

WEIGHT OF MAN. As guidance in providing sufficient strength in a floor loaded with human beings, the following weights are subjoined :Mean weight of a Belgian

Frenchman
Englishman

140-49 lbs. Mean height, 5 feet 6 inches.
136 89
150-98

5

4 29 5 ", 91

39

The weight in travelling carriages usually taken is 165 lbs. Supposing, therefore, each individual in standing to occupy 2.5 superficial feet, which would be close to one another, and indeed closer than pleasant, on a square of flooring there would be 10-40 persons, and 40 x 150.98 lbs. =2-96 tons. The average surface of a man's body is usually considered about 15 superficial feet, which would give a cubic content of 3.95 feet, and a consequent specific gravity of 612. WEIGHT OF MATERIALS. As, in the construction of warehouses, it is essential for the architect to know the probable weight of merchandise which his client may probably put upon the respective floors, the following tables may be found useful. The second one is taken from the Papers of the Corps of Royal Engineers, 1832, iii. 192, contributed by Major Harry D. Jones.

A heaped Bushel of Wheat-60 lbs. per foot cube, and 48.13 cube feet in a ton. A ditto of Barley=47 to 50 lbs. A ditto of Oats=38 to 40 lbs. A ditto of Coal=88 to 94 lbs.

Weight of WATER:

1 quart of water

4 quarts = 1 gallon

2 gallons = 1 peck

4 ditto

=69-3185 cubic inches = 2 lbs. weight.
=277-274 cubic inches = 10 lbs. weight.

= 554 548 cubic inches = 20 lbs. weight.

= 1 bushel = 2218-192 cubic inches = 80 lbs. weight.

Sea water, 1 cubic foot = 64 lbs. ; 35 cubic feet = 1 ton.

A cubic metre of water is equal in volume to 35-3174 feet English or to 220-0967 imp. gallons. As it is nearly equivalent to the old English tun of four hogsheads. holding 35-248 cubic feet, and as it has been for some time in use on the Continent for measuring sewage and water supply, it is now employed for the same purpose in England.

WEIGHTS OF A SASH. Two weights, one on each side of a sash, by which the sash is suspended and kept in the situation to which it is raised by means of cords passing over pulleys. The vertical sides of the sash frames are generally made hollow in order to receive the weights, which, by this means, are entirely concealed. Thus, to keep the sash in suspension, each weight must be half the weight of the sash. The cords should be of the best quality, or they soon fret to pieces. Wire sash line, leather Bash line, and copper sash chains, are late inventions to supersede the hempen cords.

WELCH GROIN. A groin formed by the intersection of two cylindrical vaults, one of which is of less height than the other. Also called an underpitch groin. WELDING. The union of two pieces of iron by heating and hammering them. It requires great care that the joint shall be of the same strength as the remainder of the metal. Malleable cast iron does not weld. In all but the very thinnest castings, although the surface has been converted into a malleable form, there remains an inner core which at the temperature required for welding falls to pieces immediately the object is struck with the hammer. Good specimens may be bent double when cold, although they will probably break if bent back again. The metal can also be forged to a limited extent at a moderate red heat, although if heated above this point it falls to pieces under the hammer. It may be burnt together at a temperature approaching fusion, or may be brazed with hard solder to either iron or steel. See SOLDERING and BRAZING.

The cheapening of oxygen by Brin's process of manufacture caused Mr. Thos. Fletcher, of Warrington, to make some experiments with the compressed oxygen and coal gas, whereby with a half-inch gas supply a joint could be brazed in a 2-inch wrought iron pipe in about one minute, the heat being very short, the redness not extending over one inch on each side of the joints. Welding is not possible with ordinary coal gas and air, owing to magnetic oxide on the surfaces. As a good weld was obtained on an iron wire inch diameter, with an air jet about inch diameter, the matter should be taken up and tried further (January 1888).

WELL. A deep circular pit, or sort of shaft, sunk by digging down through the different strata or beds of earthy or other materials of the soil, so as to form an excavation for the purpose of containing the water of some spring or internal reservoir, by which it may be supplied.

WELL-HOLE. In a flight of stairs, the space left in the middle beyond the ends of the steps.

WHEEL. (Sax.) In mechanics, an engine consisting of a circular body turning on an axis, for enabling a given power to move or overcome a given weight or resistance. This machine may be referred to the lever.

WHEELBARROW. An implement for carrying bricks, soil, &c. from one place to another, which has a wheel attached in front of a box-like carriage, to which two handles are affixed behind; by these the man raises the box, pushing it forward on the wheel.

WHEEL WINDOW. See CATHERINE WHEEL WINDOW.

WHETSTONE. A stone of fine quality by which tools for cutting wood are brought to a fine edge, after being ground upon a gritstone, or grinding-stone, to a rough edge. WHINSTONE. The name by which the marl of the lower greensand is distinguished in Western Sussex; probably of Saxon origin, remarks Dr. Mantell. WHITE LEAD. A material forming the basis of most colours in house-painting. The common method of making it is by rolling up thin leaden plates spirally, so as to leave the space of about an inch between each coil These are placed vertically in earthen pets, at the bottom of which is some good vinegar. The pots are covered, and exposed for a length of time to a gentle heat in a sandbath, or by bedding them in dung. The vapour of the vinegar, assisted by the tendency of lead to combine with the oxygen which is present, corrodes the lead, and converts the external portion into a white substance which comes off in flakes. These are washed and dried in stoves in lumps, and form the white lead of the painters. It is much improved in quality by keeping.

WICKET. A small door made in a gate.

WIND-BEAM. An obsolete name for a COLLAR-BEAM. The term is now applied to a piece of wood laid diagonally under the rafters of a long roof, from the foot of one truss to the head of another to strut them, so as to prevent the roof racking with the wind.

WINDERS. The steps in a stircase which radiate from a centre, and are therefore narrower at one end than another.

WIND-GUARD. One of the many names given to inventions professing to cure a down draught or a smoky chimney. Amongst these are reckoned Boyle's patent chimney cowl, a most effectual cure for either a sluggish chimney or a blow-down. Milburn's patent noiseless chimney cowl has all the fittings made of copper and brass, and will last for a long time, is easily swept, and the oil box only requires refilling every six years. Banner advertises a "Wessex chimney cowl as most efficient. Day's Windguard," and the "Prince" chimney pot for preventing down-blow, are manufac tured by Ewart and Son. Hammond's patent glazed stoneware chimney terminal is reasonable, and stated to ensure a perfect cure."

WINDING. The same as casting or warping.

WINDLASS OF WINDLACE. A machine for raising weights, in which a rope or chain is wound about a cylindrical body moved by levers; also a handle by which anything is turned.

WINDOW. An aperture in a wall for the transmission of light. See BULL'S-EYE; SKYLIGHT; LANTERN LIGHT; VENETIAN WINDOW.

WINDOW TRACERY. The ornamental stonework in the heads of windows in mediaval architecture. The earlier windows during the early English or First Pointed period of medieval architecture, were as a rule very narrow (fig. 1463) and without a dripstone. Later on, however, a dripstone, or perhaps more correctly, a hood mould, was used, which was often continued on from window to window (fig. 1465).

nn

Fig. 1463.

Fig. 1464.

Fig. 1465.

Fig. 1466.

As the style advanced, these narrow pointed openings were placed in couplets or triplets, the centre one being highest (fig. 1466); and the first approach to window tracery was developed by the piercing of the wall above the couplets with a circular or lozenge shaped opening (fig. 1467).

Fig. 1467.

Fig. 1468.

Fig. 1469.

Fig. 1470.

Fig. 1471. The next step in the development of the traceried window was the grouping together of two or three of these lancet windows and enclosing them under a label or arch (fig. 1468). The triplet window, however, contributed much less to the development of Gothie tracery than the couplet, as there was no necessity for the circular opening to fill up the spaces between the tops of the windows and the enclosing arch, as that space was already occupied by the central light (fig. 1469), which was much taller than the others. The combination of couplets with a circular opening between the tops is therefore the fundamental principle of a Gothic window, and the result produced thereby was the earliest form of PLATE TRACERY (fig. 1470). The east window of Lincoln Cathedral (shown in the illustration fig. 1472), which is perhaps the largest one in existence belonging to this style, consists of two large pointed compartments, each of which is divided into four smaller compartments or lights, called bays or days, placed in couplets with foliated circles between their heads. These couplets have also larger foliated circles between their heads, and in the spandril between the heads of the two large compartments is a large circle enclosing seven smaller foliated circles, one being in the centre and six sur

rounding it. The mullions or divisions between the lights are fronted by slender shafts with floriated capitals. This window exhibits the transitional progress of tracery from the Early English to the Geometrical Decorated period.

Fig. 1472. Outline of East Window, Lincoln.

Fig. 1473.

Fig. 1474.

In the perfect form of tracery which was developed during the Decorated period, the slips of wall between the narrow windows became reduced into mullions or upright bars of stone dividing the lights, while the tracery of the upper part of the window, of the same thickness as the mullions, consists of perfect geometrical forms resting upon the arches of the lights, the spandrils between which are pierced, and all combined or enclosed

under one arch. A common form in earlier examples consists of three lights of equal height (fig. 1473), the head of the window containing three circles placed pyramidally, the insides of which are trefoiled. But as already seen, the form which served most to develope

Fig. 1475.

the traceried window was the couplet with a circle above, combinations of which are shown in the accompanying diagrams (figs. 1474, 1475) The windows of the nave of Exeter Cathedral are for the most part pure specimens of this style; although they are all perfectly uniform with each other, no two are alike on the same side.

Fig. 1476.

Fig. 1477.

Fig. 1478.

The ogival forms introduced into the tracery, in the next period, instead of circles, trefoils, etc., caused the mullions instead of terminating with the arch of the lights, to be continued upwards in intermingling, wavy, or flowing lines to the top of the window (figs. 1476, 1477), melting as it were finally into the mouldings of the window arch, and forming by their intersections elongated and pear-shaped apertures, which are usually foliated or cusped.

The introduction of the ogee arch (fig. 1477) formed a new principle identical with the Flamboyant period in France, of which there are many examples in England. The Perpendicular or Rectilinear period succeeded, as it was found that the extension upwards could be effected by vertical lines as well as by flowing or curved ones, and with much greater ease (fig. 1478). The mullions are continued upwards to the head of the windows so as to form perpendicular divisions, which are again divided into compartments by horizontal transoms, and are trefoiled or cinquefoiled at top. These transoms were necessary to prevent the tall mullions from being pressed out of their verticality by the weight of the masonry above. They at last presented the appearance of being a huge screen of open panelled stonework. (See figs. s. V. NAVE.) The Pointed arch became flatter, and at last, in the case of small windows, became quite straight, the tracery finishing against the head.

WINE CELLAR. The apartment, generally placed on the basement story, between front and back rooms, or else formed underground, for stowing wine. The most important point in its construction is its being kept at a cool equal temperature at all times of the year. See BINN.

WINGS OF A BUILDING. The side portions of a façade which are subordinate to the prin cipal and central divisions. A small building attached to the centre or main portion by an arcade or passage, is also called a wing.

WIRE. A small flexible bar of any sort of metal, elongated by means of a machine called a draw-bench. Wove iron wire is used for the floor of malt kilns; and the size of four meshes to the inch is useful to place before openings in a building to prevent the access of flames from a fire opposite.

WIRE GAUGES, Birmingham. These are a scale of numbers extensively employed, both in this country and abroad, to designate a set of arbitrary sizes of wire, varying from about half an inch down to the smallest size usually drawn. There is no authorised standard in existence, and a great number of gauges have come into practical use, differing materially from each other. It is a mode of measuring to a great nicety very small thicknesses of metal. The usual marks are 00000 for half an inch, 1 stands for 3-4 for, 11 for, 16 for 1, 31 for, and so up to 36.

WIRE CLOTH. A very fine lattice work of wire used for blinds.

WITHE. (Sax.) The partition between two chimney flues in the same stack.

WOOD. (Sax.) A fibrous material much used in building, and formed into shape by edge tools. It is timber cut up for use by the different trades. See TIMBER.