its columns so arranged that those at the angles are to correspond with the ants of the external walls: the two central ones opposite the walls between the antæ and the middle

Fig. 1454.

of the temple are to be so disposed, that between the antæ and the above columns, and in that direction, others may be placed.

Their thickness below is to be one-seventh of their height, their height one-third of the width of the temple, and their thickness at top is to be one-fourth less than their thickness at bottom. Their bases are to be half a diameter in height. The plinths, which are to be circular, are half the height of the base, with a torus and fillet on them as high as the plinth. The height of the capital is to be half a diameter, and the width of the abacus equal to the lower diameter of the column. The height of the capital must be divided into three parts, whereof one is assigned to the plinth or abacus, another to the echinus, the third to the hypotrachelium, with its apophyge.

Over the columns coupled beams are laid of such height as the magnitude of the work may require. Their width must be equal to that of the hypotrachelium at the top of the column, and they are to be so coupled together with dovetailed dowels as to leave a space of two inches between them. Above the beams and walls the mutuli project one-fourth of the height of the columns. In front of these members are fixed, and over them, the tympanum of the pediment, either of masonry or timber.

Of circular temples there are two species; the monopteral (fig. 1455) having columns without a cell, and the peripteral with a cell (fig. 1456). In this last the clear diameter of the cell within the walls is to be equal to the height of the columns above the

pedestal. Of this species was the celebrated temple at Tivoli, in the admiration of which a dissentient from its allowed beauty has hitherto been recorded. With it situation has doubtless much to do.

Having thus related the description of Roman temples as known to Vitruvius, we give an elevation of two Grecian temples as restored, to contrast with the above descriptions of similar works. Fig. 1457 is the temple of Pallas, or of Jupiter Panhellenius at Ægina, in the gulf of Athens. The ruins were explored in 1811 by Messrs. Cockerell, Foster, Haller and Lynck, with very remarkable success, in elucidation of every desired architectural detail, and of the then unascertained style of the Æginetan school of

sculpture, constantly mentioned by ancient writers as of the first merit and of universal estimation. The temple is hexastyle peripteral, but has twelve columns only in the flanks. The top step measures 44 feet 10 inches by 93 feet 1 inch; the height to the point of the pediment is 35 feet. The pediments and acroteria were adorned with not less than thirty-four Parian statues representing the two Trojan wars, in which the acidæ were engaged more especially. These sculptures are now at Berlin, but casts of them, placed in models of the pediments, are erected in the British Museum. Fig. 1430 shows the centre group of one of the pediments to a larger scale. The date of this work is supposed to be not later than the sixth century B.C.

Fig. 1458 is a representation of the west front of the temple of Minerva, commonly called the Parthenon, at Athens. It is an example of the rare arrangement of the octastyle peripteral, the sides have seventeen columns. The top step measures 101-336 English feet by 228.15 feet; the height to the apex of the pediment is 59-27 feet. A capital of one of the columns and many of the sculptures of the pediments, metopæ, and frieze around the cella, formed a series of the gems of Lord Elgin's collection, and are now in the British Museum. Ictinus and Callicrates were the architects, and Phidias

the director of the sculpture, intrusted by Pericles with its erection. It is supposed that ten or fifteen years were so occupied, and that the temple was completed B.C. 438. TEMPLET. A mould used in masonry and brickwork for the purpose of cutting or setting out the work. When particular accuracy is required, two templets should be used, one for moulding the end of the work, and its reverse for trying the face. When many stones or bricks are required to be wrought with the same mould, the templets ought to be made of some metal.

The term is also used to denote a short piece of timber sometimes laid under a girder, particularly in brick buildings.

TENIA. The fillet or band at the top of the frieze in the Doric order.

TENANT. The occupier of a house and holding a lease or agreement from the landlord or other person. "Tenants in common" are such as hold by several and distinct titles, but by unity of possession. "Joint tenants" are such as have equal rights in lands or tenements by virtue of one title.

TENON. (Fr. Tenir.) A projecting rectangular prism formed on the end of a piece of timber to be inserted into a mortise of the same form.

TENON SAW. One with a brass or steel back for cutting tenons.

TENSION. The stretching or degree of stretching to which a piece of timber or other material is strained by drawing it in the direction of its length.

TEOCALLA. The house of God or temple of ancient Mexico. It is a pyramid formed in terraces with flat tops, and always surmounted by a chamber or cell, which is the temple itself, where the ceremonies were exhibited to the people. One at Cholulu is 1440 feet square, and 177 feet high, having four stories. The teocalla of Yucatan rises at an angle of about 45 degrees to the level of the platform on which the temple stood; an unbroken flight of steps leads from the base to the summit. That at Palenque is the finest yet discovered.

TEPIDARIUM. (Lat.) A name given to one of the apartments of a Roman bath.
TERAM. The scroll at the end of a step.

TERCENTO. The style of art prevailing in Italy during what is usually called the fourteenth century.

TERM OF TERMINAL. A sort of trunk, pillar, or pedestal, often in the form of the frustum of an inverted obelisk with the bust of a man, woman, or satyr on the top. See VAGINA.

TERMINUS. The popular word for the station at each end of a railway. TERRA-COTTA. (It.) Baked earth. In the time of Pausanias there were in many temples statues of the deities made of this material. Bassi-rilievi of terra-cotta were frequently employed to ornament the friezes of temples. In modern times it has also been much used for architectural decoration, being modelled, or cast, or made up of pipe or potter's clay with fine sand and flint, and afterwards fired to a stony hardness, hardly to be scratched with a steel point. The manufacture is greatly used in a variety of ways for ornamental and useful purposes. "Many early productions, even of less durability than those now made, are found in ruins of stone, in which the latter material has been steadily disintegrating for thousands of years, but leaving the terra cotta as perfect, in many cases, as if recently produced. In faithfully made and vitrified terra-cotta we have the great and lasting triumph of man over natural productions; for timber will rot; stone, even granite, will disintegrate; iron will oxidise; all other metals will succumb to the action of fire, and to other destroying influences of the elements. Properly made and thoroughly burned terra-cotta will pass through centuries, and be the last to yield to those influences to which all natural productions must give way. In all architectural employments it is practically time-proof and indestructible. Very many important transactions recorded in this material have been found in a good state of preservation in the ruins of Babylon." (Davis, in Builder, xlvii. 479.) TERRACE. An area raised before a building above the level of the ground to serve as a walk. The word is sometimes, but improperly, used to denote a balcony or gallery. TESSELATED PAVEMENT. A rich pavement of mosaic work made of small squares of marbles, bricks, tiles, or pebbles, and called tesselæ or tesseræ.

TESSERA. (Gr.) A cube or die. This name was applied to a composition used some years ago for covering flat roofs, but now abandoned.

TESTUDO. (Lat.) A name given by the ancients to a light surbased vault with which
they ceiled the grand halls in baths and mansions. Generally, any arched roof.
TETRADORON. (Gr) A species of brick four palms in length. See BRICK.
TETRAGON. (Gr.) A figure which has four sides and as many angles.

TETRASPASTOS. (Gr. Terpa, four, and waσow, to draw.) A machine working with four pulleys.

TETRASTYLE. (Gr. Terpa, and Tuλos, a column.) See COLONNADE.

THATCH. The covering of straw or reeds used on the roofs of cottages, barns, and such buildings; and sometimes the cottage orné is so finished for a picturesque effect.

THEATRE. (Gr. Ocaouai, to see.) A place appropriated to the representation of dramatic spectacles.

THEODOLITE. An instrument used in surveying for taking angles in vertical or horizontal planes.

THEOREM. A proposition which is the subject of demonstration.

THERME. See BATH.

THOROUGH FRAMING. The framing of doors and windows, a term almost obsolete.
THOROUGH LIGHTED ROOM. A room having windows on opposite sides.

THROUGH OF THOROUGH STONE. A bond stone; a heading stone going through the wall. THRUST. The force exerted by any body or system of bodies against another. Thus the thrust of an arch is the power of the arch stones considered as a combination of wedges to overturn the abutments or walls from which the arch springs.

TIE. (Sax. Tian, to bind.) A timber-string, chain, or iron rod connecting two bodies together, which have a tendency to diverge from each other, such as tie-beams, diagonal ties, truss-posts, etc. Braces may act either as ties or straining pieces. Straining pieces are preferable to ties, for these cannot be so well secured at the joints as straining pieces. See ANGLE BRACE.

TIE BEAM. The beam which connects the bottom of a pair of principal rafters, and prevents them from thrusting out the wall. Fig. 1459 is an illustration of a late mediæval example of a species of such a roof.

TIE ROD. The iron rod securing the feet of the principal rafters in the manner, and in lieu, of the tie-beam.

TIERCE POINT. The vertex of an equilateral triangle. Arches or vaults of the third point, which are called by the Italians di terzo acuto, are such as consist of two arcs of a circle intersecting at the top. See POINTED ARCH.

TIGNA. The tie beam of an ancient timber roof.

TILE. (Sax. Tigel.) A thin piece or plate of baked clay or other material used for the external covering of a roof. A thicker sort serves for paving. The flat tiles are called plain tiles, the curved ones are pan-tiles; these latter, if made with a double curvature, are called Bridgewater tiles.

In ancient buildings two forms of tiles were used. The imbrex, placed in regular rows to receive the shower, and the tegula, which covered and prevented the rain from penetrating the joints. The latter were fixed at the eaves with upright ornamental pieces called antefixe, which were also repeated along the ridge at the junction of the tiles. The present common tiles of Italy are on this principle, and are shown by fig. 1460. Similar tiles have of late years been manufactured in England, but the joints require to be set in mortar to prevent wet and snow drifting into the roof.

TILE CREASING. See CREASING.

TILING. The act of putting tiles on to roofs of buildings. The work itself is also so called.

TILING FILLET.

A chamfered fillet laid under slating or tiling, to raise it where it joins the wall, and prevent water from entering the joint. See SHREADING, FURRING. TIMBER. (Sax, Timbɲan, to build.) Properly denotes all such wood, either growing or cut down, as is suited to the purposes of building. A single piece of wood similarly employed is so called, as one of the timbers of a floor, roof, etc.

TIMBERS. It is advisable, as directed by the Metropolitan Buildings Act 1855, that no timber or woodwork be placed in any wall or chimney breast, nearer than 12 inches to the inside of any flue or chimney opening:-Under any chimney opening within 18 inches from the upper surface of the hearth of such chimney opening:-Within two inches from the face of the brickwork or stonework about any chimney or flue, where the substance of such brickwork or stonework is less than 8 inches thick, unless the face of such brickwork or stonework is rendered :-and that no wooden plugs be driven nearer than 6 inches (not enough) to the inside of any chimney opening.

TIP (verb.) To discharge a barrow or waggon load of anything by turning it on end or on one side.

TOLMEN, OF HOLED STONE. One of the many stones attributed to the Celtic inhabitants. Tomb. (Gr. Tvμßos.) A grave or place for the interment of a human body, including also any commemorative monument raised over such a place. The word embraces every variety of sepulchral memorial, from the meanest grave to the most sumptuous mausoleum.

TONGUE. See GROOVE.

TOOLS. (Sax.) Instruments used by artificers for the reduction of any material to its intended form, and with which they are assisted in fixing and ornamenting it.

TOOTH. The iron or steel point in a gauge which marks the stuff in its passage, or draws a line parallel to the arris of the piece of wood.

TOOTHING. A projecting piece of material which is to be received into an adjoining piece. A tongue or series of tongues. See STOOTHING.

TOP BEAM. The same as COLLAR BEAM.

TOP RAIL. The uppermost rail of a piece of framing or wainscoting, as its name imports.

TOPE. A Buddhist monument in a temple for preserving relics. Also the large mound enclosed and having gateways, as the celebrated Sanchi tope, dating about 600 B.C. TORSEL. The same as TASSAL.

TORSION. The twisting strain on any material.

TORUS. (Lat.) A large moulding whose section is semicircular, used in the bases of columns. The only difference between it and the astragal is in the size, the astragal being much smaller.

TOUCH STONE. A smooth black stone like marble. It was much used for tombs in the 16th and 17th centuries, as in that of Henry VII.

TOWER. (Sax.) A lofty building of several stories, round or polygonal. See STEEPLE. TOWN HALL. (Fr. Hôtel de ville. Ger. Stadthaus and Rathhaus.) A building in which the affairs of a town are transacted. It will necessarily vary with its extent and opulence. In towns of small extent it should stand in the market-place; in many of the towns of this country the ground floor has usually columns or piers, and forms the corn market, the upper floor being generally sufficiently spacious for transacting municipal business. Where the sessions and assizes, as in cities, are held at the town hall, it is necessary to provide two courts, one for the civil and the other for the criminal trials. In cities where much municipal business occurs, the number of apartments must of course be increased to meet the exigencies of the particular case; and, if possible, a large hall should be provided for the meetings of the corporation. On the ground floor of the first class of town halls, courts, porticoes, or arcades, or spacious staircases, should prepare for and lead to the large apartments and courts of law. Every means should be employed in providing ample egress and ingress to the persons assembling. Fire-proof muniment rooms should be provided for the records and accounts. COURT OF LAW.

For the disposition of these buildings the student may turn with profit to the examples abroad in which, generally, apartments are provided for every branch of the