Page images
PDF
EPUB

which they might know one another; engaging to assist each other against the then common custom of impressment by the monarch; and further, not to work unless free and on their own terms, especially as the monarch would not pay them as highly as did his subjects. All this appears probable, but there is no sufficient authority for it. The workpeople had at imes, as at Stratford-on-Avon, in 1353, special protection until the edifice was completed. 315. But previous to 1375, the date above mentioned, the Statutes at Large afford much valuable information, hitherto unquoted, on the subject of the manners and customs of work people. In 1349, the Statute 23rd Edward III. relates that "great part of the people and especially of workmen and servants late died of the pestilence, whereby many demand excessive wages and will not work;" the hours of labour were settled at the same time, because “diverse artificers and labourers, retained to work and serve, waste much part of the day (the manner of doing so is described) and deserve not their wages." Their wages were settled in the year following; while in 1360-1, a Statute declares that "carpenters and masons and all other labourers shall take from henceforth wages by the day and not by the week, nor in any other manner,” and continues “that all alliances and covines of masons and carpenters, and congregations, chapters, ordinances and oaths, betwixt them made or to be made, shall be from henceforth void and wholly annulled," with other details. This important Act was enforced by many others, and by the well-known Statute of 3rd Henry VI. 1425, passed at the "special request of the Commons," again putting down all chapters and, congregations held by masons. In 1436-7, 15th Henry VI., the "masters, wardens, and people of the guilds, fraternities, and other companies incorporate, dwelling in divers parts of the realm," were warned not to "make among themselves unlawful and unreasonable ordinances, for their singular profit and common damage to the people"-their lette s patent were to be brought to the justices and others for their approval. Many later Statutes were passed; but they were all at length superseded by the well known Statute of 5th Elizabeth, 1562-3, which continued in force until so late as 1813, when such portion was repealed as forbade exercise of trades by persons not having served, and as regulated the mode of binding apprentices. &c., but at the same time the customs and privileges of cities and boroughs were saved. It is certain, from all these observations, that there were fellowships or guilds of masons existing before the middle of the 14th century; but whether the one in London had any communication with those guilds existing in the other corporate towns, or whether there was a supreme guild which led to a systematic working, is still without elucidation. It has been asserted for years, on the faith of certain manuscript" Constitutions," that a company of Freemasons, formerly existing at York, held a charter of incorporation from King Athelstan, dated in 926, under which they claimed authority over the companies throughout Eng'and. As noticed hereafter (par. 322a), it is distinctly proved that the Grand Lodge of Masons of Germany was not established until so late as 1452.

316. These guilds or companies had legendary histories, as had probably most of the other building trades. That which belonged to the stonemasons was accepted by the Society of Free and Accepted Masons, when it was established or reestablished in 1722; this last has descended as a highly respected charitable and friendly society to the present day. Of such histories or "constitutions," besides at least six in manuscript, dating about 1646-60, there are two others in the British Museum. The earliest one is presumed to date about the latter part of the 14th century, and has the form of a poem in about 575 lines, entitled Constitutions of Geometry; it was first noticed by Mr. Halliwell, and edited by him in 1840. The other manuscript, dating about 1500, has been printed nearly in facsimile by Mr. M. Cooke. They were all undoubtedly compiled for the use of a body of working masons; they refer to yearly assemblies, to a lodge as a workshop, taking apprentices, workmanship, moral conduct, punishment of offenders, and observance of their articles and points," or bye-laws as they may be termed. No references are made to secret signs or to masonic marks; as regards the latter, a few remarks will be offered subsequently.

317. The masons when about to set to work, had a lodge or workshop provided for them, and sometimes had to make it for themselves; this shed or building also served them oc casionally as a residence, or place for eating their meals, as often occurs at the present day. This lodge is noted in an early account as being covered with thatch, while in a much later one it is to be "properly tiled," an expression still in use by the modern society, when the door of their place of meeting is closed. This lodge is adverted to in the manuscripts above mentioned, as also in the Fabric Rolls of York Minster, published in Browne's Histor of York Cathedral, 1838-47, and separately by the Surtees Society, in 1859. These records elucidate many interesting points connected with works and workpeople; and causes us to regret that the example set in printing them has not yet led other Deans and Chapters to do the like, or to allow them to be published They show that there was a continuous line of master masons from 1347, the date of the earliest document, who were duly sworn to the office, had a fixed salary, a residence, and if becoming blind (which appears to have been, and is still, very often a result of employment in masonry), or compelled by bodily infirmity to give up the direction of the works, he was pensioned, and sometimes he was bound not

to undertake duties elsewhere while engaged at the cathedral. The master mason was often succeeded by his junior or assistant; in one instance a fight took place in consequence of a master mason, who was a stranger to the place, having been appointed to the office. Gowns or robes, the latter sometimes lined with fur, were provided for the master, and tunics for his men, as well as gloves (at 14d. each) to the masons and carpenters; also aprons and clogs, and occasional potations and remuneration for extra work. This officer in the king's household had a livery, as probably had the carpenter and other officers.

318. It is necessary to mention that the trades, from a very early period, appear to have kept themselves to their distinct handicrafts; thus, while the monasteries had masons and carpenters, and a plumber and his boy, at hand, yet the glazier, bell-founder, painter or decorator, smith, and some others, were residents in the town or some adjoining city. Only in a few of the monasteries were the monks able to perform some of these duties themselves. In Italy, however, talented youths were received and educated at such establishments, and became lay brethren, as much for their own safety as out of gratitude to their masters; the devotion of their time and talents in ornamenting the sacred edifices, has led persons to urge that ecclesiastical buildings were designed, erected, and decorated, by clerical hands.

44

66

[ocr errors]

As far as

319. We will now proceed to notice very succinctly the other official titles. the design of the building was concerned, that labour appears to have been left to the master mason, whatever interest the monarch, the bishop, the abbot, or the prior, may have displayed in giving instructions as to their wishes; no doubt clever men then, as now, interfered with their architects and induced them to follow special orders, whether correct in taste or otherwise. The term "Architect" has rarely been found in the middle ages; perhaps to a certain extent the word ingeniator," so early as 1199, may have taken its place. Supervisor" occurs constantly, soon after the Conquest, and has been translated surveyor," and sometimes "overseer;" it is not always clear what is to be understood by the term; whether actually a “ designer" and professional man, as held by some persons in the celebrated example of William of Wykeham, at Windsor Castle; or merely as a "director," seeing to the orders of others being carried out as we hold was the position of Wykeham, acting for the monarch, the design being attributable to the master mason. Numerous examples are given in the paper from which we are quoting; and it likewise contains a searching enquiry into Wykeham's professional capacity, with what result we must beg the reader to judge for himself. The "Magister Operum" or "master of the works" was an important officer in many monastic establishments; at Croyland, for instance, he was the first of the six greater officers, and to his superintendence was submitted the construction, reparation, beautifying, and enlarging, of all the buildings belonging to the monastery. The sacrist often held this office, and many names are known, more especially that of Alan de Walsingham, at Ely monastery, whose history and labours deserve attention. In the agreement made at York, in 1367, it was arranged that the plumber was to work with his own hand wherever he should be required by the "master of the fabric;" if his services were not required, he might obtain leave of absence from the chapter, or from the "master of the work," but to return when required by the said master. At the same period there appears to have been a "keeper of the fabric "who was to settle the amount of the day's work for the plumber and his servants, and to pay salaries. As the "master of the work," the "keeper of the works," and the "master mason," are all mentioned in one document of the same period, they cannot be considered as one person. The house.. hold of the monarch, as before noticed, comprised an office for carrying out works at the royal palaces. The earliest list yet found is of the reign of Edward IV. (1461-83); in it the "clerk of the works," who is placed first, has a fee of two shillings per day, or 364. 10s. per annum, a clerk at sixpence per day, four shillings per day for riding expenses, and twenty pence for boat hire. The next officer in the list is the comptroller, then follow the clerk of the engrossment of the pay-book, the purveyor with an allowance for his horse, the keeper of the store-house, the clerk of the check, the clerk of the comptrollements, the carpenter, the plumber, the mason (in this list is omitted), the joiner, the glazier, the surveyor of the mines, who has also 367. 10s. per annum, and lastly, the devizor of building, who has the same amount. It would appear from a passage in the Ordinances published by the Society of Antiquaries, 1790, that this clerk of the works was first instituted by Edward III., and the livery for that officer is known to have been given as early as 1391. Similar lists occur later; in Elizabeth's reign, the title becomes that of surveyor and paymaster, or surveyor and clerk; in one of 1610, containing the household of prin ce Henry, Inigo Jones is " surveyor of the works; " Mr. Smith, "paymaster and overseer; " and Edward Carter, "clerk of the works." Jones was subsequently "surveyor" of the king's works; and Denham, Sir C. Wren (who received the fee of 45l. 12s. 6d. ), and others, were styled surveyor-general." This royal establishment eventually became the Board of Works, then the Office of Works, and is now known as the Commission of Public Works. It was this Board of Works that served as the school for architects, or to which the best architects were attached, during the 17th and 18th centuries The earliest instance of the term "clerk of

46

K

the works" occurs in 1241, 25th Henry III., for certain works to be done at Windsor; in later times it appears in connection with the palaces at Westminster and elsewhere; and such an appointment it will be remembered was held by William of Wykeham, in 1956, and by Geoffrey Chaucer, in 1389. The "devizor" already named, although it occurs sc early as about 1470, is a title to which but one name has been attached, that of John of Padua, on the faith of a passage in Walpole's Anecdotes.

320. These careful notices are concluded by the statement that "there is one circumstance respecting nearly all these officers which perhaps needs a passing comment. Very many of them were either ecclesiastics or were rewarded with ecclesiastic preferment. But it must be remembered that, during the period to which our attention has been confined, the church was the only field for exertion open to those of the nobility and gentry who were not inclined to embrace the profession of arms; it also afforded a means by which to obtain a livelihood; therefore the clergy, so called, would thus secure the offices at the disposal of the monarch and of the nobility. Some names, however, appear to have been unconnected with the church." It might be added that in late times in France, eminent architects were appointed abbés, and from their establishments derived the funds for the remuneration of their services. "It is very difficult to understand the duties of these officers. The overseer would be, perhaps, the most easily explained, but his Latin designation as used in the Records, is unknown to us unless the Latin word "Supervisor" has been the one the translators have found. The English word supervisor, if that of steward be questionable, is, perhaps, best kept for those who, acting on behalf of others, as Wykeham for the monarch, have yet no grounds to be considered the designers of the building. The master of the works, as he was called in the monastic establishments, and later in Scotland, held the place of the English king's chief professional man, and was, no doubt, one of the talented advisers of the day. The king's clerk of the works clearly stood in the place of the architect. The master or keeper of the fabric was probably the keeper of the whole structure; and the keeper of the works was, perhaps, only the custodian of the particular works then in progress; the edifice, under those circumstances, being developed by the master of the works or by the master mason. But there is one officer of whom we should desire to know much, but of whom nothing whatever is known; this is the devizor of buildings."

321. We would refer the student to the paper by Mr. Ferrey, read at the same society in 1864, Some remarks upon the works of the early medieval architects, Gundulph, Flambard, William of Sens, and others. The subject will be well concluded by quoting the result of Mr. Street's enquiry into the designers of the buildings in Spain. He states in his Account of Gothic Architecture in Spain, 1865, p. 464, that "it is often, and generally thoughtlessly, assumed that most of the churches of the middle ages were designed by monks or clerical architects. So far as Spain is concerned, the result at which we arrive is quite hostile to this assumption, for in all the names of architects that I have noticed there are but three who were clerics. In our own country it is indeed commonly asserted that the bishops and abbots were themselves the architects of the great churches built under their rule. Gundulph, Flambard, Walsingham, and Wykeham, have all been so described but I suspect upon insufficient evidence; and those who have devoted the most study and time to the subject seem to be the least disposed to allow the truth of the claim made for them. The contrary evidence which I am able to adduce from Spain certainly serves to confirm these doubts. In short, the common belief in a race of clerical architects and in ubiquitous bodies of freemasons, seems to me to be altogether erroneous.' This work treats very

[ocr errors]

minutely on the position of the designer of the buildings in Spain. (See par. 395.) 322. Among other matters connected with the progress of the art. Stieglitz, in 1834. brought to the notice of the public, the marks on courses of stone in many buildings in Germany, and elsewhere, called “mason's marks," which by some have been supposed to be the personal mars of the masters of the works, but which are, in fact, nothing more than directions to the setters, and, indeed, are used by masons up to the present hour. Some of these, however, are curious in form and figure, and were most probably determined by the lodges. Their forms are principally rectangular, of forty-five degrees, of the equilateral triangle, of the intersection of horizontal and perpendicular lines, and circular. Some of them have so great a resemblance to Runic characters, that therefore it has been argued the Anglo-Saxons taught the Germans architecture, and that they cultivated the art, and had masonic lodges among themselves, at a very early period; but this seems rather unreasonable; neither is it likely that the natives of this island were the chief artists employed on foreign cathedrals, though some may have been. That these marks, however, were used from some traditional knowledge has also been urged. Thus the mark, the cruciform hammer of Thor, is found in the minster at Bàle, and repeated in the sixteenth century in the church at Oschatz. This mark abounds in a great variety of phases,-on medals, on annulets, in the museum of the Royal Academy of Copenhagen; and on many Runic monuments, as mentioned by Hobhouse in his illustrations of Childe Harold. It is also found on the sacred jar of the Vaishnavas (Asiatic Researches, vol. viii.). At the Château de Coucy (13th century) is found 4, the Rusic letter S. One mark of frequent recurrence

Hobhouse,

is, an inverted Runic T. It may be seen at Fribourg, at the beautiful church of St. Catherine at Oppenheim, and at Strasburg, connected with the letter N. Without founding any hypothesis upon the singular agreement of these marks with the sixteen letters of the Runic alphabet, it is at least a curious matter for further examination. as above mentioned, states, that a character resembling the hammer of Thor is found in some Spanish inscriptions, and he seems to think it bears affinity to fig. 161. which is often drawn by boys in Italy, though no meaning is ascribed to it; this figure is found at New Shoreham church; Archeological Journal, vii., p. 390.

Fig. 161

322a. The earliest lodge of which we have any authentic knowledge, was that of Strasburg. Erwin von Steinbach seems to have been at the head of it; he appears also to have been the first secular architect of importance that arose, and to have had privileges of great importance conceded to him by the emperor, Rodolph of Hapsburg. This lodge was regularly constituted, with power, round a certain extent of territory, to maintain order and obedience among the workmen under its jurisdiction. In 1278, Pope Nicholas III. granted to the body a bull of absolution, which was renewed by his successors up to the time, in the fourteenth century, when Benedict XII. occupied the papal chair. Jodoque Dotzinger, master of the works at Strasburg in 1452, the merit seems attributable of so forming an alliance between the different lodges of Germany, as to induce a greater uniformity of practice. Whether from the central lodge of Strasburg, whence certainly branched lodges at Cologne, Vienna, and Zurich, branched also the lodges of France, England, and Italy, in which last named country one existed at Orvieto, it is now perhaps too difficult a task to discover.

To

3226. Much stress has been laid upon the marks, which are found upon the faces and beds of stones in nearly all countries. In fig. 162. are given several of these fanciful forms, as we

[merged small][ocr errors][ocr errors][ocr errors][merged small][ocr errors][ocr errors][ocr errors][merged small][ocr errors][merged small][merged small]

maintain them originally to have been. a and b, are from the interior and exterior of the nave of Gloucester cathedral. c, Malmesbury abbey church. d, Furness abbey. e, Poitiers in France. f, St. Radigonde. g, Cologne cathedral; and h, Roman altars at Risingham: these are all from Mr. G. Godwin's paper in the Archæologia, vol. xxx. i, from Segovia cathedral; k, Tarragona cathedral; and 4, Veruela cathedral; are given, with many others, by Mr. G. E. Street in his Gothic Architecture of Spain. Numerous examples are given in the Freemasons' Monthly Magazine, &c. new series, 1862, and in the Builder Journal for 1863. Perhaps the fact of their occurrence, as in the present day, simply due to their being the marks or signs by which each mason recognises the particular stone for the correct workmanship of which he is answerable. On large works a list is kept of them by the foreman, and any new man having a mark similar to one already on the list, has to make a distinctive difference. An eminent practical mason assured us that from the character of the mark he could tell at once the kind of stone on which it was made.

A general history of POINTED ARCHITECTURE is placed at page 233; the PRACTICE OF POINTED ARCHITECTURE is placed in Book III., together with much relative information and illustration in PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION, in the same Book.

SECT. XVI.

ITALIAN ARCHITECTURE.

323. The commencement of a new era in architecture first dawned in Florence, and then soon spread its meridian light over Italy and the rest of Europe. The French have well applied the term renaissance to its commencement. It is with us denominated that of the revival of the arts. The Florentines had at an early period, according to Villani, determined to erect in their city a monument which should surpass all that had before appeared; in 1294 Arnolfo di Lapo (according to Vasari), but Arnolfo di Cambio da Colle (according to Molini), had so prepared his plans that the first stone was laid Sept. 8, 1296, and the name of Sta. Maria del Fiore was then given to it. The works were stopped 1810 on the death of Arnolfo. In 1324 Giotto was capomaestro, who, dying

1336, his design for the campanile was carried out by Taddeo Gaddi, who died 1366. In 1955 Francisco Talenti, as capomaestro, was ordered to make a model to show how the chapels in the rear were to be disposed correct without any defect. On June 19, 1357, the foundations of a new and larger church were begun by Talenti. Andrea Orcagna, Bucozzo, Taddeo Gaddi and other architects of talent were consulted in turn, and in 1976 the last of the four arches was completed; the central tribune with its five chapels were completed 1407; and in 1421 the armatures (centering?) of the last tribune were taken down (The Times, May 12, 1887). This edifice, though commenced before the revival of the arts, is one of particular interest and instruction in the history of architecture, and one wherein is found a preparation for changing the style then prevalent into one sanctioned by the ancient principles of the art. Fig. 163. shows the plan, and fig. 164

[graphic][subsumed][subsumed][subsumed][merged small][merged small]

the half section and half elevation of it. The walls are almost entirely cased with marble. The whole length of it is 454 feet; from the pavement to the summit of the cross is nearly 387 feet; the transept is nearly 334 feet long; the height of the nave 153 feet, and that of the side aisles 96. In 1407 Brunelleschi was consulted with others as to the dome, but was not appointed until 1420; he nearly completed the drum at his death in 1446. The church was consecrated March 25, 1436, and the works ceased in 1474. The façade, destroyed in 1588, was rebuilt from a design by E. de Fabris, and unveiled in May 1886. The revival of architecture is so connected with the life of Brunelleschi, that a few passages in the latter will assist us in giving information on the former. He was born in 1377, and was intended by his father, Lippo Lippi, a notary of Florence, to succeed him in his own profession; but the inclination of the youth being bent towards the arts, the parent with reluctance placed him with a goldsmith, an occupation then so connected with sculpture that the greatest artists of the time applied themselves to the chasing and casting ornaments in the precious metals. Brunelleschi became skilful as a sculptor, but determined to devote himself to architecture, in which the field was then unoccupied. In company with Donatello he therefore visited Rome, and applied himself with ardour to the study of the ruins in the Eternal City, where he first began to meditate upon the scheme of uniting by a grand cupola the four arms of the Duomo at Florence. During his residence he settled in his mind the proportions of the orders of architecture from the classic examples which the city afforded, and studied the science of construction as practised by the ancients; from them he learnt that perfect accordance which always exists between what is useful and what is beautiful, both of which are reciprocally subordinate to each other. Here he discovered the principles of that nice equilibrium, equally requisite for the beauty no less than for the solidity of an edifice. He returned to Florence in 1407. In this year the citizens convoked an assembly of architects and engineers to deliberate upon some plan for finishing the Duomo. To this assembly Brunelleschi was invited, and gave his advice for raising the base drum or attic story upon which the cupola should be placed. It is not important here to detail the jealousies of rivals which impeded his project; nor, when the

« PreviousContinue »