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discharged into the open air in an exposed position, and shall not be connected with the soil drain or rain-water pipes, either directly or indirectly, but shall act as detectors. "6. All sinks, baths, lavatories, and urinals shall be trapped with suitable traps, and the discharges from them shall be carried outside the walls of the house, and shall not be connected directly with any soil drain, nor shall they be introduced under the grating of any trap, but they shall terminate in the open air, and not near any window or other opening. "7. All water-closets, urinals, and slop sinks shall be provided with suitable flushing cisterns, and the flushing pipe for any closet shall not have a less internal diameter than 14 inches, and the height of the flushing cistern above the closet, urinal, or slop sink shall not be less than 4 feet. It shall be impossible to draw water from any cistern used for flushing purposes for any other purpose than that of flushing.

8. The cisterns used for general purposes shall be easily accessible, and shall be provided with covers ventilated into the open air outside the house by a rising pipe other than the overflow pipe, and no pipe from them shall be connected in any way with any soil pipe, drain, or with any pipe receiving the discharge from any bath, lavatory, urinal, sirk, or flushing cistern.

"9. No rain-water pipe used to receive the waste from any bath, lavatory, sink, or urinal shall be placed near a window or other opening; and no rain-water drain shall connect directly with a soil drain; and no rain-water pipe shall be used as or connected with the soil pipe, nor as a ventilating pipe.

"10. No cesspit shall be constructed in such a manner, nor placed in such a position, as to endanger the water supply; and every cesspit shall be ventilated by an inlet air pipe and by an outlet ventilating pipe rising to an elevation above the ground level of not less than 20 feet, and having a clear sectional area of not less than 10 square inches, the area of the inlet pipe being double that of the outlet ventilating pipe."

SECT. XI.

TECHNICAL SCHOOL AND COLLEGE BUILDINGS.

3037. The remarkable movement in favour of more efficient technical training has called for an exact treatise on the peculiarities of plan and structural arrangements and fittings of buildings required for its development. Foreign nations have been beforehand with us in this matter, and have long since provided noble buildings, specially created and admirably fitted up for the purpose, and well stored with singularly complete industrial and fine art collections.

3038. Mr. E C. Robins, F.R.I.B.A., F.S.A., has, besides the lectures delivered by him, brought together a large amount of information on the subject of technical education as taught both in England and abroad, and on the adaptation of architecture to the requirements of this teaching. This new volume is entitled, A Treatise on the Design and Construction of Applied Science and Art Buildings, and their suitable Fittings and Sanitation, with a Chapter on Technical Education, 4to. 1887. It contains full descrip tions of such institutions as the Bonn, Berlin, and Munich chemical laboratories; Du Bois-Reymond's Physiological Institute at Berlin; the laboratories at Charlottenburg, Zurich, Paris, Strassburg. Most of these are accompanied with cuts and diagrams, so that their interior arrangements may be studied in minutest detail. Descriptions of the laboratories at South Kensington, Finsbury, Leeds, Bristol, Manchester, Huddersfield, Oxford, Cambridge, and other English cities, are given; with chapters devoted to the fittings of these buildings, giving detailed information concerning the hundred and one minor things which go to make up the perfect laboratory; as the working benches, demonstration tables, drawing rooms, and so on. The heating, ventilation, and sanitation of applied science buildings are also elaborately treated and profusely illustrated. An appendix gives statistics as to the technical schools in Great Britain: as particulars of the area occupied by buildings, their cubical contents, the cost of land, cost of fittings, annual expense of maintenance, number of students. and so forth. One chapter embraces the planning of schools for middle class education generally, as at South Hampstead, Gravesend, Sevenoaks, Caterham, Battersea, Wapping, Haverstock Hill, Stepney, with the Camden School for Girls, and the North London Collegiate School for Girls

3039. It has lately been pointed out that technical education was not meant to be a substitute for apprenticeship. The object is rather to teach boys and young men how to learn a trade rather than to teach them the trade itself. As a comparison of the views held by some continental states, and by England, on this subject, it has been stated that the Finsbury College, London, cost 37,000 to build, and requires 6,000l. per annum from the City Guilds for maintenance; and that the City and Guilds Central Institute cost 90,000l. to build, and receives 10,000l. per annum; while at Berlin, a building has been erected twice the size of Buckingham Palace, which cost 690,000l. to build. and it receives 37,3801. per annum from the state!

BOOK IV.

VALUATION OF PROPERTY.

CHAP. I.

The valuations in which the architect is consulted are properly only those wherein buildings have been or may be erected; from which if he wander, the probability is that he will create difficulty for himself, tending to exhibit him as a pretender to knowledge not within the regular course of his occupation. The general principles, therefore, on which we propose to touch, are confined to the species of property above named, as distinguished from that in which the resident valuator near the spot in the different provinces is the best adviser, from the local knowledge he possesses. The auctioneers who with unblushing effrontery pretend to a knowledge of the value of property in the metropolis, are utterly incompetent to the duties they undertake, from an ignorance of the durability and cost of buildings, which can be attained by the practice and experience of the architect only.

Buildings may be so disadvantageously placed on their sites as to realise nothing like a proper interest on the money expended in their erection; and, indeed, so as altogether to destroy even the great value of the ground on which they are built. Thus, to place before the reader extreme cases, which generally best illustrate a subject, let him suppose a row of hovels built in Piccadilly, and a house like Apsley House placed in Wapping High Street. In both cases the productive value of the ground is destroyed, there being no inhabitants for such dwellings in the respective quarters of the town. From this it must be evident that the value of town or city property, which consists principally of buildings, is divisible into two parts; namely, —

That arising from the value of the soil or site; and

That which arises from the value of the buildings placed upon it.

We will suppose for a house which is fairly let at a rent of 100l. per annum, no matter what the situation of it be, that it could be built for 1000l., and that the proprietor or builder would be content with 7 per cent. for the outlay of his money, a rate by no means larger than he would be entitled to claim, seeing that the letting, after it is built, is a matter of speculation, and that loss of tenants and other casualties may temporarily deprive him of the interest of his capital. In this case, then, the rent of the mere building would be 70l. ; and as the full rent assumed is 1004,

100-70=30, which is manifestly the value of the ground or ground rent.

Thus in the cases of valuation of freeholds, wherein the gross rent can be accurately ascertained, there can be no difficulty in coming at the real value of the ground rent, because the building rent, or that arising from the expenditure of money on the soil, can be immediately ascertained by the architect, with the rate of interest on it which it is fit the builder should have. The remainder of the rent is that inseparably attached to the value of the soil, and belongs to the ground landlord.

The reason for thus separating the two rents is this: the ground rent, attached as it is to the soil, is imperishable. It is true that the value of ground is constantly fluctuating from the power of fashion over certain localities; but with this the valuator cannot deal. The changes are slow; and the Lord Shaftesbury in the time of Charles II. would have little thought it possible, when he placed his residence in Aldersgate Street, that his successors would have dwelt in a house in Grosvenor Square; neither, even five and twenty years ago, did it cross the mind of the then possessor of the Grosvenor property that the Five Fields at Chelsea contained a mine of wealth in the ground rents of Belgrave and Eaton Squarcs. Such are the mutations of property, with which the present question is not involved, unless the gift of foresight, in a degree not to be expected, be given to the valuator. The other portion of the value of house property is strictly the result of the perishable part of it, namely, the building itself; and this is limited by the durability of the building, which has great relation to the time it has already existed, and to the substantiality with which it has been constructed. The durability, then, or the number of years a building will continue to realise the rent, is the second ingredient in a valuation, and is a point upon which none but an experienced person can properly decide.

The rate of interest which the buyer is content to obtain in the investment of his money in buildings, or, in other words, in the purchase of the perishable annuity arising from the building, will necessarily vary with the value of money in the market. In the compensation cases under public improvements, wherein it is obligatory on the owner to

part with his property, the 6 per cent. rate of the table is generally used, by which the buyer makes too little interest on the perishable part of the property. Few would be inclined to invest money in such property at so low a rate, for a rent which every year, from wear and tear, becomes less valuable. Individuals understanding the subject would scarcely be found to purchase, unless they could make at least 8 per cent. for this part of the capital. In the cases above mentioned, twenty-five years' purchase, that is, 4 per cent., is the usual price at which the ground rent is taken.

Having thus prepared the student, we will present an example of a valuation conducted or the principles named. Thus, suppose a building and the ground on which it stands to be together worth 150l. per annum, and that its durability is such that a purchaser may count on receiving that rent during a term of fifty years. We will suppose the house to stand upon a plot of ground 24 feet in frontage and 60 feet in depth; that the size of the house is 24 feet by 40 feet, and that to build a similar one would cost 1,440, which, at a rate of 7 per cent. upon the expenditure, would produce a building rent of 100l. 16s. per

annum.

Now the total rent being

The rent arising from the building itself

The value of the mere ground must be

£ s. d. 150 0 0 100 16 0

£ d.

49 4

We therefore here have the imperishable part, viz. the ground, of the value of 491. 48. per annum, which, giving the purchaser 4 per cent. interest for his money, is twenty-five years' purchase for the fee-simple by the Fourth Table, that is

An annuity (from the building) of 100%. 168., to continue for fifty years, is, by the Fourth Table at 5 per cent., worth 18-256 years' purchase, that is

The value of the old materials at the end of the term, if taken to be pulled down and sold for 150l., will be that sum at the end of fifty years to be received at the present time, discounting at 4 per cent. from the Second Table 1407 × 150

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497. 4s.
24 feet

=

41s. per

In the above valuation the ground estimated by its frontage would be foot, and ground is usually let by the foot when demised for building. In the chief parts of great cities ground is now usually sold and let at per foot superficial.

The next case of valuation is that of a beneficial lease, in which the rent paid by the lessee is less than the actual value of the premises. The difference between them, therefore, is an annuity for the term of the lease, which is so much benefit to the lessee, and is estimated by the Fourth Table; thus—

Suppose the actual value of given premises be
Rent reserved by the lessor

Beneficial annuity belonging to the lessee

£100

50

£50

If the term of the lease be twenty one years, such is the length of the annuity, and the question stands as under :

An annuity for twenty-one years, discounting at 5 per cent., is by the Fourth Table worth 12-8211 years' purchase, which multiplied by 50%=6417. 18.

It is to be observed that the annuities must be clear after the deduction of all outgoings which may be necessary to keep it unencumbered.

Let us take another case.

A man takes a lease of ground at 104. per annum, and lays out 1,000Z. on a sixty-one years' lease, interest being 3 per cent. How much must he receive as rent to replace the principal at the end of the term?

1000l. at 3 per cent. = 30%. + 101. ground rent = 401. improved rent.

11. per annum for sixty-one years at 3 per cent. will amount to 1691 (See Third Table.) 51.98.

1000

169

the sum to be laid out yearly.

And 301. +51. 9s. =35l. 98., or 3.59, is the rate of interest to secure or replace the principal at the end of the term without consideration of repairs, loss of tenants, insurance, &c.

We now subjoin some observations on the valuation of house property, which claim the architectural student's attention. Inwood's Tables for the Purchasing of Estates, &c. have long been in general use; they are founded on the elaborate Tables by Baily and Smart. A series are given hereafter. W. D. Biden, Rules, Formula, and Tables for the Valuation of Estates, &c., with his smaller work, Practical Rules for Valuers, 1862, are useful, and have furnished the outline for the following remarks.

It is generally considered that the value of a freehold house ranges, according to situa tion, style. condition, &c., from 10 to 20 years' purchase. It naturally follows, that pur chasers, and some valuators indeed, imagine that house property, as a rule, pays from 5 to 10 per cent. interest on the purchase-money. This is a great error, as many have experienced who have endeavoured to realise and to expend yearly 8 per cent. on the cost of house property. The valuation should be made at 5 per cent. (if the purchaser will be content with that interest); and the present value of all the costs, charges, and losses incident to house property should be fairly stated and deducted in the valuation, and then the purchaser will not be deluded with the idea that he is to net a very large interest, which may be spent unconcernedly. Such is the expectation of many of those who are induced to join Building Societies, and who buy, what appears to them, a bargain, as they will be receiving for years double or treble the amount of interest obtainable from the funds. A change of tenants, or other cause, soon shows the difference. Where, however, the buyer himself occupies the house, whether freehold or leasehold, he may make a very advantageous investment of his money. In the latter case, that is, of a leasehold, he must bear in mind the result of the occupation of the premises, namely, dilapidations, for which he will he called strictly to account by his landlord at the expiration of his term of lease.

Compare the following valuations, made in two ways, of a freehold house, which will last for about 80 years, the tenants paying the rates amounting to about £7 per annum. One valuator may make out his calculations thus:£ 8. d. £ s. d.

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(In a leasehold valuation, the ground rent would also have to be deducted.) To pay 8 per cent., at years' purchase (Fourth Table)

Presumed value of the property, according to this rough valuation

121

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Another valuator will make out his calculations as follows:

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Gross rent

Annual deductions, as before

Net rent

8. d.

63

14 8

48 11

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But property is usually subject to various depreciating con-
tingencies, which must be provided against by an annual
reserve according to the class of building, thus:-
Deduct for losses by bad tenants, say 1 year's rent in 6
And, for extra repairs and expenses contingent upon such
frequent changes, say an equal sum

= 10 10 O

Deduct a sum for rebuilding (say about £630), which, put by each year in the funds at 3 per cent. compound interest, will produce that amount at the end of the life of the house, say 80 years, i.e., £1 per annum for 80 years (Third Table)

Clear income from the property

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If the purchaser elects to have 5 per cent. for his speculation, the amount to be paid for the property will be

£512 0

The value of the ground in these calculations is included in the rental; when of some Importance, it must be valued upon its own merits, as shewn in the previous page.

But there may be a further expenditure for surveyors' charges, solicitors' charges for transferring the property, and loss of capital by selling out of the funds, which it may be often necessary to deduct from that amount. A matter also of consideration is whether the building is in a good state of repair, both in structure and decoration, as ready for a tenant.

When the property is leasehold, then, as soon as the clear income has been ascertained. it will have to be multiplied by the number of years' purchase at the rate of interest required for the term (Fourth Table), to find the amount that the property is worth. The number of years' purchase provides for the percentage and to get back the principal, the annual instalments of which must be invested at the same rate of interest to produce the total sum at the end of the term (in lieu of the rebuilding fund in the freehold property). Among Inwood's Tables, 16th edition, 1855, is one (p. 177), whereby to calculate the present value of an income for a certain number of years, which is to pay during its continuance a given rate of interest on the purchase-money, and to replace the purchase-money at the end of the same number of years at a rate of interest to be selected."

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From the former method of expressing the valuation, it would appear that a purchaser may realise 8 per cent. upon his outlay; and so indeed he may, for a few years, if everything connected with the property be very favourable; but the latter calculation shows exactly what may be expected, namely, that on capitalising a further sum to form a sinking fund for certain repayments, then 5 per cent. per annum may be appropriated as income, the remainder of the rent being set aside to supply a fund to meet exigencies of no uncommon occurrence. The real value of the property, moreover, is found to be much less than what the rough calculation would show it to be worth.

The deductions for losses depend entirely upon the class of house. First class houses in good situations let so readily to responsible tenants, who for their own comfort and display maintain the fabric, that the sums to be deducted for the occasional want of occupants and expenses of reletting are reduced to a minimum. On the other hand, a much lower class of house, together with the present unsatisfactory mode of letting houses on three years' agreements, and the still more ineligible arrangement by the year, throw so much larger amounts for repairs, decorations, and change of tenancy, upon the landlord. that the total of the sums to be deducted is raised to a very high estimate. Herein the best judgment of the valuator is called into requisition, and it requires the knowledge obtained by the practical architect to assist his judgment in such matters.

After the actual value has been ascertained, another item for consideration is the additional sum that a purchaser will be induced to give for some reason-such as the property being in a fashionable neighbourhood; the house possessing arrangements peculiarly suited to his wishes, and so on: this amount may be called a “ fancy price," and when paid had better be considered as money sunk.

For making rough calculations, according to the first instance, the value of freehold land in the country is generally considered worth from 30 to 33 years' purchase, being calculated on the 3 per cent. tables. In a few very exceptional cases as much as 40 years' purchase has been given; but the difference constituted a "fancy price." For town plots from 25 to 30 years' is more usual. Freehold houses and buildings, 1st and 2nd class, from 18 to 20 years' purchase, or 5 per cent.; 3rd and 4th class, about 16 years' purchase, or 6 per cent.

For Leasehold property :

1st and 2nd class, from 15 to 16 years' purchase or 6 per cent.

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Freehold Ground-rents are valuable in proportion to the extent to which they are covered by the rack-rent and by the period of reversion. A good ground-rent ought to be six times covered, that is, five parts are brick and mortar rent, and one part groundrent. A reversion, however, unless within forty years, is not much taken into account. Some ground-rents in the City of London (where the ground-rent is larger in proportion) have sold for 314 years' purchase; those only covered by three times the rack rent, sold for 25 years' purchase. Leasehold and freehold ground-rents can only be valued according to locality, circumstances, length of holding, &c. Unsecured ground-rents are usually valued at 25 years' purchase, but those well-secured at from 30 to 33 years' purchase. Improved ground-rents are not worth so much as the freehold ground-rent, in consequence of the covenants of superior leases, danger of breaches of covenants, &c.

In the valuation of leases held on lives, the operation, after bringing the rent to a clear annuity, is conducted by means of the sixth, seventh, and eighth tables, given hereafter, as the case may require.

In the valuation of warehouses, the only safe method of coming at the value of a rental

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