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A width beyond 40 feet seems to have been considered by the performers as inconvenient, from the space they would have to pass over in the business of the drama, but 50 feet appears now to be the maximum adopted. A greater width, indeed, than that stated prevents the easy and secure working of the scenes, for the machinery is increased in magnitude and weight as the height and breadth of the scenes increase. In mere spectacle and scenic grouping a reduction in the width of the proscenium, and depth of the stage, reduces the number of extra performers, or supernumeraries as they are called, which become necessary for filling the stage. Again, every additional foot given to the stage opening increases the quantity of canvas used in the scenes, as well as the framing whereon they are fixed.

2958a. In the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, vol. xxvii., Mr. J. S. Russell gives some elementary considerations of certain principles in the construction of buildings designed to accommodate spectators and auditors, well worth the architect's notice. In every large room, says the writer, a perfectly good seat is one in which, without uneasy elevation of the head or eye, without straining or stretching, we can calmly and quietly take any easy position, or variety of positions, which we may be disposed to assume, and yet may in all of them see and hear the speaker with equal clearness and repose, so as to give him patient and undisturbed attention. The object, then, is to ascertain in what manner the interior of a building for public speaking should be formed, so that throughout the whole range which the voice of a man is capable of filling, each individual should see and hear without interruption from any of the rest of the audience, with equal comfort in an easy posture,

Fig. 1347.

and as clearly as if no other individual auditor or spectator were present. (See figs. 1347. and 1348.) The position of the seats is first investigated. In the usual variety of station

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and of position, it appears from experiments that the range required for the purpose is more

than a foot and less than 18 inches, so that these may be taken as the limits; that is, over the head of the person before you there must be a clear range of 12 or 18 inches, through which the head may be moved upwards or downwards without interruption. In other words, that a straight line drawn from the speaker's head over that of the anterior spectator shall intercept the straight line which forms the back of the seat of the posterior observer, so as to cut off a height of 12 or 18 inches, within which the head of the spectator shall at times be comprehended while sitting in a comfortable, position. Thus let S (fig. 1347.) be the speaker and XYZ be three successive ascents; then the line SX must fall below SY, so as to leave the space Yr 18 inches = Zy.

2959. Applying this formula to every individual place in the room or building, we shall have the form required to satisfy the auditors. Let 2 feet be assumed as a constant representing the distance of one spectator behind another, measured horizontally; and 14 feet as the clear space, measured on the vertical line, for the mean range of comfortable vision for each. If the level of the floor, that is, of the lowest seats, be already determined, the form of the interior accommodation may be thus described. AY (fig. 1348.), the height of the speaker, YX the level floor. From Ay take Yy=4 feet. Draw yr parallel to YX. Take Ay to yr as 14 to 24, that is, as h, the range of position of the spectator, to d, the distance between the seats. Take horizontal distances 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. = 2 feet, prolong Ar to r', then the height x to l=1 feet. Join Al and prolong it to r", and take a distance x" to m=14 feet. Through m draw Am, and prolong it to "", and take ""n=1} feet. Continue the process in the same manner to p, q, r, s, t, &c., and the points will be found of the successive places which the heads of the auditors should occupy.

2960. But it is not only in receding that the back seats must rise; those too far forward may be also unpleasant. They are too low; they also should be raised: but this must be done so as not to interrupt those who are behind. It may be accomplished in a similar way; for, as formerly set off, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, &c. =24 feet (fig. 1349.), 1 is the first anterior point. Join A1, and let it cut the vertical line through 2 in x", the portion downwards "l=1} feet; then is the point found. Join Al, make "k =14 feet; join Ak and ""-11 feet; and so on. g, h, i, k, l, are the places found which the heads of the spectators should occupy, and show the elevation to be given to the seats successively.

=

h

k

2

5

Fig. 1349.

2961. If the simple process described be accurately performed, the points which indicate the places of the spectators will lie in the branches of a very beautiful curve, which may be termed the iseidomal or the isacoustic curve, that is, one of equal seeing or hearing: it will be of the form in fig. 1350. A being the place of the speaker, and the heads of the spec

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tators being placed on the line Amn, continued as far as the voice will reach, XAX being the axis of the curve, and YY its parameter. This curve has two branches on opposite sides of A, showing that if the building extend behind the speaker, or if the spectacle be visible or the sound audible on every side, the same may be continued all round. means of this curve, the position of seats in a theatre may be satisfactorily determined.

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2962. For any great assemblage, where it is desirable that one individual or group of individuals should be seen or heard, an amphitheatre of this form might be constructed from the surface of revolution generated by moving the curve round its axis, which would perfectly accommodate 10,000 individuals.

2963. According to the arrangement of London audiences, Mr. Wyatt calculates that a theatre consisting of three fourths of a circle on the plan, with a stage opening of 35 feet, will contain, in boxes in four tiers, four other boxes next the stage, a pit and two galleries, 2,869 persons, exclusive of four boxes in the proscenium, and fourteen immediately under the dress boxes. Perhaps no modern theatre can be required to hold above 2,500 people,

2964. We have already given some general hints relative to the form; we shall here add the author's view of this matter; and thereon he very properly says that, with reference to distinct sound, the safest method is to adopt a form known to be most capable of conveying sound with facility, to construct that form of materials that are conductors of sound, and to avoid all breaks and projections on the surface of that form, because they obstruct and impede the progress of the sound. It is well known that a circular enclosure without breaks possesses the power of conveying sounds with facility, as the whispering gallery in St. Paul's Cathedral; and that wood is an admirable conducting material for the purpose. Count Algarotti, in his treatise on the Opera, says, daily experience teaches us that in a box whose walls are naked, the singer's voice is reverberated in a particular manner; it sounds crude and harsh, and by no means flattering to the ear; the accents are quite lost it the box be hung with tapestry; whereas they are reflected full, sonorous, and agreeable to the ear when the boxes are only boarded, which is an obvious proof, and confirmed by experience, that the best lining for the interior part of a theatre is wood, as is said to have been the case in Her Majesty's Theatre, burnt in 1867.

C

front line of stage

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2965. Whatever be the form of the theatre, it ought in every part to be limited in extent to such distance as the voice will distinctly reach; and the nearer that figure conforms to the proportions wherein the natural voice is heard in each direction, the more equally will the sound be heard in every part of the theatre. The experiments tried by Mr. Wyatt proved that the reach of the voice when moderately exerted was in the proportion of about two ninths further in a direct front line than laterally; and that being distinctly audible on each side of the speaker at a distance of seventy-five feet, it will be as plainly heard at a distance of ninety-two feet in front of him, declining in strength behind him so as not to be clearly heard at much more than thirty feet. "According," says Mr. Wyatt, "to these data, it would appear that the geometrical figure, which comes the nearest to the extreme limits of the natural expansion of the voice, is a semicircle of 75 feet radius, or 150 feet in diameter, continued on each side to the extent of 17 feet, or in the proportion of about two ninths of its lateral expansion (fig. 1351.) beyond the limits of the semicircle, and then converging suddenly until the two lines meet at C, behind the back of the speaker." But though the voice may be heard at these distances, it does not follow that a theatre of this extent should be erected; indeed, it would be absurd to do so, for the actor varies his place almost every moment; and as he removes from the centre, from which it has been assumed he is speaking, he would become inaudible to some parts of the audience as he receded from it. It is evident, therefore, in planning a theatre, the radius or semi-diameter must be so reduced as to bring the extreme distance at which he may in any case be placed within the space of 75 feet, that is, that when the speaker is placed at the extremity of either side of the stage, his voice may be heard by those seated on the opposite side of the house. In the diagram, the widest part of the theatre inscribed in the larger figure is 58 feet upon the level of the dress boxes; and allowing 9 feet 6 inches for the depth of the boxes on that floor, by means of a projection of 18 inches more than the boxes above, there will be 67 feet 6 inches between the extreme part of the stage on one side and the back wall of the boxes on the opposite side: but as the speaker is in no case placed at either extremity of the stage, and even if so situated, the distance between him and the opposite side of the house would be within 8 feet of the reach of his voice in its lateral direction, and 25 feet within its limits in a direct line, it hence appears that the circular is preferable to any other form; and if we fix a limit for the diameter of that form, we are in possession of the rules which limit the length of the theatre, or the distance from the front line of the stage to the boxes immediately in front of that line. Taking 75 feet for the distance at which the voice can be heard laterally, as the space between the front line of the stage and its immediately opposite boxes may occasionally be in the lateral direction of the voice, the greatest distance from the front wall of the stage to the back wall of the boxes opposite the stage should not exceed 75 feet, the limit of the voice in its lateral direction, because of the turns of head which he must often make for the business of the scene, when that which was opposite might become lateral; and thus those persons sitting in the opposite boxes would be 92-75 feet 17 feet beyond the reach of his voice. 2966. The use of a semicircle without modification would, however, involve the extension of the stage opening to an inconvenient width; and Mr. Wyatt very properly considers that the whole area of a theatre should contain little more than one-third of the space over

Fig. 1351.

which the voice can reach; "the one," he says, "being (independently of the space behind the back of the speaker) a superficies of 11,385 feet, and the other of 4003." This, he thinks, will compensate for the absorption of sound consequent on the number of the audience, the woollen garments they wear, and the state of the atmosphere, and would ensure a good hearing in every part of the house.

2967. According to the author's statement, he recommends that the distance from the front of the stage to the back wall of the boxes immediately opposite should be about 54 feet; in the old Drury Lane it was 74 feet, and in the old Covent Garden Theatre, built about 1730, it was 54 feet 6 inches. In the Opera House, built by Vanbrugh, it was 66 feet. At Milan it is 78 feet. At the old San Carlos, at Naples, 73 feet; and at Bologna, 74 feet. The distance in the late Covent Garden Theatre was 69 feet 8 inches, or nearly 16 feet more than it ought to have been. How, then, can people wonder at not seeing and hearing in such theatres? See also the Table given in subsect. 2958.

2968. In an opera house the band as it were sustains the voice, and the spectacle of the ballet is more addressed to the eye than to the understanding; but even in that the theatre is universally too large for the pleasure of those who appreciate properly what is transacted in the scene. It is satisfactory to know that the theatre, which in our introductory remarks was selected as a model, should coincide in the main points here in question with Mr. Wyatt's project. We are not certain whether he had visited it, but are certain that if he had he would not change his opinion.

2969. In respect of vision in a theatre, there can be no question that the semicircle gives the best chance for the whole of the audience; but the objections to it are, that it requires that either the stage opening should be of inconvenient width or that the size of the house should be too small. It is therefore, without modification, inadmissible. It is on this account that the ellipse, the horseshoe, and other flat-sided forms, have in later theatres been adopted, though it is manifest that a large proportion of the audience, says our author, "must be placed with their backs inclining towards the scene, and that in all of them (if the house be not of extremely small dimensions) the front boxes must be at a great distance from the stage; for in proportion as the sides shall approximate each other the front must recede, provided the circumference be not varied." The summing up of the question on this head is thus given by Mr. Wyatt: "There is no object connected with the formation of a theatre which, in all its bearings, is of more importance ‣ than that the part of the house which faces the scene should be within a moderate distance from the stage. Unless that be the case, it is obvious that a very large proportion of the spectators must be excluded from a clear and distinct view of that play of the features which constitutes the principal merit of the actor in many of the most interesting scenes.' Mr. Wyatt does not believe that the height of the ceiling injures or affects the sound of the voice in the lower parts of the theatre, and observes that it must in every theatre "be much too high to act as a reverberator or sounding board to the lower parts of the house." But we do not agree with him on this point, and think we could refer him to more than one theatre in the metropolis which is defective in the conveyance of the sound from this cause alone. Besides this, we do not feel quite certain that the diagonal line drawn from the actor to the upper tier of boxes should not be the regulating distance, instead of the horizontal one which has been mentioned above.

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2970. The following inelude many of the late suggestions for improving a theatre for the public, with those named in the former edition of this work. The mode of securing an exit free from fear, as well as from actual danger, has not been sufficiently faced; to provide against the disastrous results of a panic is a work of greater physical difficulty than to render a building fireproof. For a stage manager to appear every night and explain the available means of egress, the attendant at special doors to shout "here" on being named (and then to vanish for the rest of the evening), might satisfy some persons. The paramount consideration is a sufficiency of exits. Ingress and egress should be provided on each side of the house, so that whatever doors, passages, and staircases are placed on one side, there will be corresponding ones on the other. The spectators are thus divided and pressure avoided. The various tiers may in large theatres require more than one exit. It is important to prevent two crowds meeting in the street, such as the pit and the gallery, for the pathway becomes blocked. The difficulty on the ground floor is not great.

A "crush" room and waiting room are wanted, where those having carriages may wait, and those who are going to walk should be let out clear of them.

Whenever two passages meet, by which an exit takes place, from that point onwards the passage should be double the size, in order to let the crowd pass easily. The passages and staircases should be made direct, so that the crowd need not hesitate or stop the way at all. Large halls and staircases give rise to much lounging about, which is bad. Angles should as much as possible be avoided, as well as steps in passages, for which no excuse can be offered.

Sloping corridors have been advocated, but these are not praticable in some localities.

2970a. Every opening should be instantly and always practicable. All obstructions should be forbidden by law. Doorways ought not to be less than 6 feet wide, and the doors in most cases are best made sliding, or should open both ways, whether made of wood, wrought iron, cement, or terra-cotta. Messrs. Chubb have lately invented a clever contrivance for dispensing with an attendant at extra exit doors, consisting of a superimposed spring panel on the inside of the door, in which the lock is embedded; with a slight pressure the double doors fly open outward, and it is impossible to open them from the outside except by a key. Another invention is Walker's new safety and escape door, consisting of an inner frame of a door which will open outwards, the usual outer frame opening inwards. Present doors can be adapted to the invention.

29706. Two stone or cement staircases to the galleries are essential, although one need only be used as an entrance. The staircases for the upper parts should be as wide and as easy as possible. Staircases should never be less than 5 feet wide (some writers say not more than 3 feet wide), the steps to be all straight, no winders, 12 inches in the tread, and not less than 6 inches rise. They should be square, and be formed along an enclosed wellhole, if any; no windows should be permitted. A series of staircases absolutely disconnected with each other has lately been urged; the only doors on to it being at the top and bottom; an iron hand rail on each side. It has also been suggested that "there should be an equal number of steps to each flight, say thirteen for headway and space; the half-landing should be elliptical, every door should open both ways, and folding, with an easy fastener. All these, in any case, ought to be provided in new buildings, and as much as possible in old buildings" (W. H. White, F.S.A.) In large staircases, which consist of a centre and two side flights, the central one should be equal in width to the two side flights together. In calculating the width, regard should in some measure be had to the number of persons which the part they serve will contain. The broad, long gallery stairs at the Italian Opera House, Covent Garden, with the door near the top, show a good arrangement; they serve a double purpose, being at once a stairs and a waiting-hall. Communication with the wardrobe and the property rooms should be effected only by iron spiral stairs.

2971. The "crush room" or saloon at the Italian Opera House, Covent Garden, is situated at the top of the grand staircase, and forms an ante-room for all those passing to the boxes. At each end of the room are refreshment bars, to which all classes can thus resort, to the exclusion of none. Proper cloak rooms, with lavatories and water-closets, and refreshment rooms or bars, are necessary adjuncts. The various rooms required for the different departments will differ in every theatre, and the architect must obtain this information from the manager, before he sets to work. Near the orchestra is a waitingroom for the musicians, with cupboards for their instruments and coats, lavatories, &c. The music library should not be far away. A painting room over the ceiling of the auditorium was formerly usual, also at the back of the stage, where the artist can paint against the upright wall. The carpenters' shops are near to it. The property and armoury rooms must be near the stage; and a very well ventilated property shop. The theatre at Warsaw is said to be very complete in its wardrobes. The dressing-rooms for men and women should be kept apart; the tailors' and dressmakers' shop and wardrobes just above them, and fitted with lifts to send costumes up and down. Supernumeraries' and soldiers' dressing-rooms are also required. A large magazine near the stage, to keep the stock, scene cloths, and wings, properly fitted with racks and grooves, to stow them away in good order. Green-rooms, or waiting-rooms for men and women, so that no one should be on the stage who is not immediately concerned in the acting. The passages to have plenty of swing doors to prevent draughts. Proper apartments for firemen, hall porter, and housekeeper; kitchen and cellars; rooms for the manager, secretary, treasurer, chorus and solo practice; and lavatories, &c., throughout the house. A box office is usually provided near the chief entrance. Large and dry cellarage is a desideratum, in which to stow unused properties.

2971a. With the exception of the dressings and interior ornaments of the building, it would be possible, though perhaps somewhat inconvenient, to erect a theatre, though not perhaps absolutely fireproof, yet very secure against fire. Small theatres can be constructed of concrete and cement and terra-cotta, from its rude form as common brick, to stair treads; all the finishing touches would be of the ordinary materials of theatre building. Iron should never be depended upon except as a stiffener, and then buried in concrete. Stone should be excluded. Floors to be of cement floated on concrete, such as Wilkinson's improved granite concrete, having arched under surface between iron girders also with iron joists forming a parallel landing about 6 inches thick for landings and cor ridors; and for paving, &c.; steps can be formed of it singly for fixing, or formed in sit with moulded or plain sofite. As a matter of primary importance, the auditorium and th

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