Century," with a single sentence, as follows: "The comparatively slight progress that has been made in the development of the newspaper during the last one hundred years inclines one to the belief that we are merely at the fringe of journalistic development." In both these cases a single sentence is sufficient to put the reader in touch with the leading thought to be considered; but most magazine articles from their length require a longer and more formal introduction. It may consist of one paragraph or even more. Thus an article, entitled "In the Engine-Room of a War-Ship," begins as follows:

"Perhaps the points on which the average reader of naval service literature has the greatest curiosity, are those which are nearly always overlooked by the writers in this line. These points relate to the duties which in actual service the officers and men of the Engineer Division are called upon to perform."

A writer on "The Paris Exposition " begins with a quotation from the Commissioner-General of the Exposition:

"The Universal Exposition of 1900 should be the philosophy and synthesis of the century; it should have at once grandeur, grace, and beauty; it should reflect the bright genius of France; it should demonstrate that today, as in the past, we are in the van of progress; it should honor the century and the Republic, and show to the world that we are the worthy sons of the men of 1789."

An apt quotation or a well-told anecdote will often make a most effective introduction.

If the discourse is narrative or descriptive, it is sufficient for the introduction to define simply the setting, in time or in space. Irving's sketches afford excellent examples of introductions to both these forms. In emotional discourse, the introduction must arouse interest and overcome prejudice. The opening of St. Paul's speech to the Athenians, in the seventeenth chapter of the Acts, will be remembered at once. In argumentative and expository works the introduction must set forth with some completeness the point of view and the manner of treatment of the subject. Thus ex-President Harrison, writing on "The Status of Annexed Territory and of its Free Civilized Inhabitants," begins as follows:

"A legal argument on this subject is quite outside of my purpose, which is to consider, in a popular, rather than a professional, way, some of the questions that arise, some of the answers proposed, and some of the objections to these answers."

A cursory study of any of the magazines or books at hand will furnish plenty of examples of good introductions; but it is to be noted that, whatever the form of the introduction, it should contribute to the unity and coherence of the whole work.

125. The Conclusion. The final element of a good plan is the conclusion. Most writers desire either to emphasize what they have already said, or to round out their work gracefully so as to leave a good impression on the mind of the reader. Just how this shall be done depends on the kind of discourse. As a general rule,

the conclusion should be as brief as possible. A formal conclusion is not essential. The writer may stop when he has said what he has to say; indeed, it is a merit to stop when interest in the subject ends, and the reader has nothing more to expect. A single happy turn of expression will answer in this case. Such may be the conclusion of simple narration and description. In stories it may be abrupt and suggestive, but it must suggest something with which the reader is familiar. This is a device frequently adopted by Kipling. In emotional discourse the conclusion may gather into itself the spirit of the discourse and apply it to life and conduct. In intellectual discourse it gathers the threads of thought, or summarizes the arguments so as to leave on the mind of the reader a distinct impression of the purpose of the work. The formal conclusion must conduce to unity and emphasis. It must concentrate the thought which the body of the work necessarily tends to diversify, and enforce it on the mind of the reader.

It is hardly necessary to give an extended list of conclusions for illustration. Like the introduction, the nature and appropriateness of the conclusion may be readily understood by reference to the various magazine articles at hand.

126. The Principles of Style Applied to the Composition. Enough has already been said to indicate that the principles that govern well-constructed sentences. and paragraphs are precisely those that govern the whole composition. All three are alike in their general nature.

Each is an organized whole, made up of parts mutually related and dependent. It makes no difference whether a writing be short or long, whether it be a single sentence, a single paragraph, or many paragraphs, its several parts must be combined on the same principles. It must be a unit, the parts must be logically arranged and their relation shown, and each must receive its due proportion of treatment and proper emphasis.

1. Unity. It is as important that a series of paragraphs forming a whole composition should have unity as that the paragraph should have that quality. What constitutes unity in the composition is often a matter of delicate artistic judgment. Ordinarily there must be unity of subject matter as well as of form and method of treatment. The subject itself must be so limited as to suggest one line of thought only. It is manifestly absurd to attempt to write on such general subjects as "Nature" or "Animals." The utter indefiniteness of such subjects precludes all notion of unity. With a limited subject we may hope to make each paragraph and each sentence bear some definite relation to the single impression which the composition is to make. The material having been gathered, the problem is simply one of selection. If we make proper choice of the material at hand, and treat each phase of the subject with the proper degree of fullness, our composition will have unity. If we digress into other lines of thought which the subject may remotely suggest, if we introduce extraneous matter, or if we do not sufficiently develop

the necessary topics, our work will lack unity. The best way to secure this quality is to have a plan of our work for reference.

2. Coherence. Coherence is an essential quality in any composition. It is precisely analogous to coherence in the paragraph, and is a question of proper arrangement. If we have arranged our material, more especially our paragraphs, in logical order, and have been careful to suggest the connection of part to part, our composition will have coherence. Our plan will be the best help to a logical arrangement, while the relation between the parts may be indicated by the use of connecting words, or by the repetition of words and phrases. To secure cohesion in the composition the connection of thought from paragraph to paragraph must be carefully considered. As the reader must be led naturally and logically from point to point, the several paragraphs must sustain a relation to one another much like that of the links in a chain. The transition must be gradual, and never so abrupt as to confuse or shock the reader. The topic discussed in any paragraph should be such as the preceding paragraph would naturally suggest. The repetition in the introductory sentence of some clause or phrase from the concluding sentence of the preceding paragraph, the employment of some expression that calls to mind the thought of that paragraph, or the use of some connecting word such as this, that, these, those, however, consequently, therefore, etc., will suggest the paragraph-reiation, carrying the thought