son.

The verb to compare is followed by the preposition with to show degree of excellence, and by to to show resemblance. "He compared the Capitol at Washington. with other great buildings of the world." "We might compare a great river system to the arteries of the human body." The verb to differ takes with when the difference is a matter of opinion, "I must confess that I still differ with you in that matter," and from or among when it has to do with appearance or with fact. "In personal characteristics they differed greatly among themselves." 66 They differed from each other as much as brother and sister can." The adjective different should be followed by from and not by than.

It is to be remembered that between should be used only in relation to two objects, though both of these may have the plural form. Among should be used when the relation to be expressed has to do with more than two. The preposition off is frequently used in connection with from or of. "He jumped off from the box" is a construction that is both awkward and incorrect. One preposition is sufficient, and it may be said that, in general, when two prepositions are used properly together one of them is really an adverb, as in "He came down from the hill." According to and others of like character are phrase prepositions, and not several prepositions used together with their separate meanings.

There is another fault in the use of prepositions against which it is more difficult to guard, a fault illustrated in this sentence: "Where did you take the package to?" Where, an adverb, cannot properly be the object of a preposition. A substantive should be substituted; or the sentence should be re-written with the omission of the preposition "to."

67. Miscellaneous Errors.

An obscure viclation of the rule that two negatives make an affirmative is that involved in the use of not with the words hardly, scarcely, and barely. "They were hardly able to get here on time," expresses the difficulties experienced

in coming; and the addition of a negative, "They were not hardly able to get here on time" denies the difficulties instead of making them more emphatic, as the writer intends.

son.

Another common error is the use of than after such words as hardly and scarcely. For example: "Scarcely had the clouds cleared away than the sun came out." Than implies comparison, and requires an adjective or an adverb of comparison before it. We may properly say, "No sooner had the clouds cleared away than the sun came out." A careful distinction should be made between the comparative and the superlative degrees of compariThe comparative degree is used when two persons or things are compared, and the superlative when more than two are compared. We may say Of two evils choose the less," and "Of several evils choose the least." We should be equally careful to avoid giving comparative and superlative forms to adjectives and adverbs that are incapable of comparison. Such adjectives as dead, perfect, unanimous, and inseparable express absolute quality, and are therefore incapable of degree. It is ridiculous to say that one thing is deader or more perfect than another. What we mean is, that one thing is more nearly dead or more nearly perfect than another.

The pronouns in self, such as myself, himself, herself, themselves, should not be used for the corresponding personal pronouns. We may say correctly, "My brother and I went out for a walk," not " My brother and myself went out for a walk." The pronoun in self is used properly either for emphasis or reflexively, that is, referring to the subject of the clause in which it stands. We may say, "I myself saw the accident," and "He gave himself up to the authorities."

The adjective pronouns this and that should agree in number with what they limit or represent; thus we say "That kind of people" or "Those kinds of people," and "That sort of thing," not " Those sort of things."

When to is used as a part of the infinitive no word should intervene between it and the verb itself. The use

of the "cleft infinitive," as it is called, is gaining ground, but the sanction of good use cannot do away with the inherent awkwardness of such sentences as the following: "He told the scout to carefully reconnoiter and to promptly report." Writers of the better sort do not yield to the temptation to employ such loose phrasing.

Place the word only as near as possible to the word which it modifies. "He only would lend me the book," may be interpreted in two ways.

In

Adverbial phrases should be carefully placed. "He might have gone on his bicycle, with great propriety, or with his carriage," is an instance of careless arrangement. A pronoun should refer plainly to its antecedent. the two following sentences there is room for doubt as to the meaning: He showed me a box in his desk which held many treasures." "John could not go to his brother because he had yellow fever."

Avoid constructions in which the subjects differ in person or number. "Neither you nor I am responsible," should be "Neither of us is responsible."

EXERCISES.

1. Define a sentence.

What do you think to be the important point to be considered in the definition? Why cannot any group of words constitute a sentence?

66

2. Define a solecism. What do you understand by an error of construction " or " an error of syntax "? Do solecisms properly belong to rhetoric? Why should they be given in a chapter of rhetoric?

3. What do you mean by inflection? Of what does the inflection of nouns consist? How does this compare with the inflection of pronouns and of verbs? How does the inflection of nouns in English compare with the inflection of nouns in other languages with which you are acquainted?

4. What errors are we liable to make in using nouns and pronouns? Why is there more liability to error in

using pronouns than in using nouns? How would your answer apply to the use of verbs? What do you mean by a redundant expression? An incomplete expression?

5. What is the regular rule in English for forming the plural number of nouns ? How do you account for such plurals as men, children, oxen, geese and mice? Bring to the class a list of nouns that are used only in the plural, also a list of nouns ending in "s" that are singular.

6. With the help of the dictionary write the plurals of the following nouns:

stratum, curriculum, animalcule, index, alumnus, mathematics, beau, phenomenon, cherub, dictum, datum, necropolis, erratum, larva, vertebra, maximum, radius, stamen, spectrum, hypothesis, analysis, aide-de-camp, focus, ignis-fatuus, oasis, crisis, addendum.

7. Write the possessive case, singular and plural, of: fairy, lady, mouse, ox, man, woman, witness, princess, thief, Dickens, Jones, Burgess, brother-in-law. Write the possessive case of: Jones the grocer, Prince of Wales, Houghton, Mifflin & Co., man-of-war, Smith and Thomas, William the Conqueror.

8. Mention the different kinds of pronouns. Make a list of the personal pronouns, giving the nominative and the objective cases, singular and plural, of each. Distinguish between who and whom, who and which, whose and of which, which and that. Mention the pronouns in self, and tell how they should be used.

9. What is the difference between an adjective and an adverb? What do you understand by comparison? Why should some adjectives and adverbs be incapable of comparison? How would you distinguish between a verbal noun and a present participle?

10. Write the principal parts of the following verbs: awake, bear, begin, bid, burst, clothe, dare, do, eat, flee, fly, go, lie, lay, sit, see, take, go, drink, sing, rise, throw.

II. Write sentences using the past tense and the past participle of each of the following verbs: bear, bid, do, eat, give, drink, lie (recline), see, dive, swim, set.

12. Correct the errors in the following sentences, and be prepared to give reasons for your corrections.

1. A Mississippi teacher writes us saying that at the County institute a number of the teachers agreed to each invest five dollars of their own money in a library for their schools.

2. He wished to have been present but he knew that he had ought to stay at home.

3. We were most there.

4. This kind of an expression is called a substantive.

5. They do not want to do the work nor to have anyone else do it.

6. The jury was of widely different opinions in regard to the testimony of the last witness.

7. They did not know as they would come until just before starting, and so we did not expect them.

8. It looks like they had not yet found out the proper method of mixing the ingredients.

9. We found the new play different than we had expected. 10. Hilary jumped off of the car while it was yet in motion. II. They did not know where the book was at.

12. That picture looks like you do before you have combed your hair in the morning.

13. When they first tried to cross the bridge they found it would not support them without it was repaired.

14. We were surprised at the doctor coming, for Mabel had been well for nearly a week.

15. The master taught his boys other things than were to be found in books. From him they got the story of Arnold von Winkelried holding against his breast the Austrian spears. From him, too, came their knowledge of the cuckoo laying its eggs in the nests of other birds. Without he had inspired them to find ever new pleasures in wood and stream, they would have missed the best joys of their boyhood.

16. If he was not known well here I think he would have little difficulty in making the arrangement.

17. He said that the laws of the universe were immutable. 18. There were but seven of us against a score of the enemy, and as we looked at each other fear sprang into the face of every one.

19. He expressed the wish that the earth was even larger than it is.

20. Hawley and I had argued the matter for two hours, and now as we looked at one another we knew that we were no nearer a conclusion than before.