for instance, committed immoral acts in order to court reproach and humble their self-esteem. But such doctrines were always condemned by the more authoritative Şūfi theologians. Thus Shabistari (Gulshan i Rāz, Answer iv) says that the true mystic who has attained "union" must not rest in that ecstatic state, but while he is in the flesh must journey down again, wearing the law as his outer garment and carrying out its obligations.

6. The Şufi "Contemplation" (Mushāhadah) is closely allied to the Plotinian "deifying virtue" of Theoria explained as Theou orasis or the beatific vision. One line of scholars, led by A. von Kremer, however, traces this element of Sufism to Vedantism or to Buddhism. The objections to this view are first that no Indian terms are found in Sufi writings and secondly that the Buddhist Nirvana is an end in itself; the Sufi Fana is only the preliminary to Baqă, continued existence in the One Real Being. When the One becomes the "heir of all", or, as St. Paul says, when He is "all in all” (panta en pasin), Şüfis look for an immortality of an impersonal character, concentrated in the One. Lastly, metempsychosis is condemned by Sufi theologians (Gulshan i Rāz, 1. 106).

Harnack, in his History of Dogma, has shown how profoundly Christian theology has been affected by Neoplatonist ideas. The disputes about Ousia, Hypostasis, and Physis which rent Christendom asunder1 mainly grew from "afterthoughts of theology" suggested by these ideas, and their influence has extended to our own days. It is hardly too much to say that their influence on the course of events has been as considerable as that of the Roman law. In Islam their influence has

1 Gibbon's Decline and Fall, ch. xxi.

2 "Paulus genuit Augustinum et Augustinus genuit Calvinum." With Paul should be coupled Plotinus. See Bigg's Introduction to Augustine's Confessions (Methuen, 1903).

been much more restricted than in Christendom, but, such as it was, it is instructive to trace it.1

The manuscript of the Lawa'iḥ now reproduced is undated, but was probably written within a century of Jami's death in 898 A.H. It once belonged to the royal library at Delhi, and the outside pages contain notes by the librarians, one of which, dated the 24th year of Aurangzib, states that it was worm-eaten even then. W. H. Morley, who also owned it, has noted on the fly-leaf his opinion that it is not Jāmi's work, but written by one Sayyid 'Abd ul Kāfi. This, however, is certainly a mistake. Haji Khalfa, in his notice of Jami's Lawä'iḥ, quotes the beginning, which agrees with the beginning of this manuscript, and one of the quatrains gives Jami's name. The British Museum possesses three copies-viz., Add. 16820 (Rieu, p. 44a); Add. 16819, iv (Rieu, p. 8266); and Add. 7689, iv, fol. 150 onwards (Rieu, p. 8106). Copies are to be found in other libraries. In addition to that now reproduced, I possess one, written in an Indian hand, probably in the eighteenth century.3

2

The facsimile of the manuscript has been made by Messrs. Nops, of Ludgate Hill. They have been very successful in removing nearly all traces of the stains and worm-holes in the original, and I think the writer of the manuscript himself, could he see it, would find little fault with their reproduction of his handiwork.

I began the translation some years ago, but, owing to failing eyesight, had to stop after getting to the end of Flash VII. I have now been fortunate enough to secure the assistance of a very competent scholar, Mirzä Muḥammad Kazvini, who has furnished me with a literal 1 For a sketch of the system of Plotinus, who is the best exponent of Neoplatonism, see Appendix II.

2 Haji Khalfa, v, 344.

3 The Munich Catalogue, p. 21, mentions a manuscript of the Lawāyih [sic] with a different beginning.

French version of the whole, together with some valuable notes. In his translation the Mirza has chiefly followed the British Museum Manuscript Add. No. 16819, which contains several passages not found in this manuscript. Most, if not all, of these seem to me to be glosses which have crept into the text, but I have given them in this translation, marking them with square brackets. Up to the end of Flash VII the accompanying translation is that made by me some years ago, with some corrections suggested by the Mirza's version. From the beginning of Flash VIII to the end of the book the translation is the Mirza's French version turned into English by me. In this part of the work I have followed the Mirzā closely, only referring to the original to verify a word here and there. I am solely responsible for the Preface and notes. If they contain errors of fact or doctrine, these must not be imputed to the Mirzā.

The references to the Gulshan i Raz are to my edition Rāz of that work (Trübner, 1880); those to the Masnavi of Jalāl-ud-din Rumi to my translation of that poem (second edition, published in Trübner's Oriental Series, 1898); those to Omar Khayyām to my text and translation, published in the same series, second edition, 1901.

As regards transliteration, I follow the rule laid down. long since by the Indian Government, that when foreign words have become naturalized in English they should be spelled according to English usage. Thus I write Calcutta, Moslem, Koran, Abbasides, etc. Again, when a Persian writer has chosen to transliterate his own name in a particular way, I do not presume to interfere with his discretion. I give titles of books as they are spelled on the title-pages, and, like Rieu, I represent hamza by the "spiritus lenis" ('). With these exceptions I have in the main observed the transliteration rules of the Royal Asiatic Society.

E. H. W.

TRANSLATION OF THE LAWĂ'IH

How is this,

The threshold

"I Do not render praises unto Thee." 1 seeing that "all praise returns to Thee"? 2 of Thy sanctity is too high for my praises. Thou art what Thine own praises declare Thee. O Lord, we are not able to tell Thy praises or set forth Thy glories. Whatsoever is manifested on the pages of the universe is praise reflected back to the threshold of Thy most glorious Majesty. What can faculty or tongue of mine declare worthy of Thy glory and honour? Thou art such as Thou hast Thyself declared, and the pearls of Thy praise are what Thyself hast strung.

In the vast largesse of Thy Majesty
This whole world's but a drop from out the sea;
What power have we to celebrate Thy praise?
No praises save Thine own are meet for Thee!

Where the speaker of the words "I am the most eloquent [of the Arabs]" 3 lowered the flag of his eloquence, and found himself impotent to render Thee fitting praises, how shall a mere stammerer venture to open his mouth or a dullard deliver an apt discourse? Nevertheless, in this case to excuse one's self on the ground of one's incapacity and deficiencies is itself the gravest of defects, and to put one's self on a level with that prince of the world and of the faith would be a serious breach of propriety.

1 A saying of Muḥammad.

2 Fluegel (Haji Khalfa, v, 344) translates, "Quomodo possim? Cf. Surah xvii, 46, "Neither is there aught which doth not celebrate Thy praise," and Psalm cxlv, 10.

3 Referring to the saying "I am the most eloquent of those who pronounce the letter Zād (Dzād) ", the Arab shibboleth.

1

What am I? Can I count myself the peer
Of the poor dog that's suffered to draw near?

I may not join the caravan-enough

If from afar the camel bells I hear.

O Lord, send down Thy blessing upon Muḥammad, the standard-bearer of praise and possessor of "the glorious station", and upon his family, and upon his companions who through earnest endeavour have succeeded in attaining the goal of their desire, and pour upon them all Thy perfect peace!

SUPPLICATIONS

2

O God, deliver us from preoccupation with worldly vanities, and show us the nature of things "as they really are ".3 Remove from our eyes the veil of ignorance, and show us things as they really are. Show not to us nonexistence as existent, nor cast the veil of non-existence over the beauty of existence. Make this phenomenal world the mirror to reflect the manifestations of Thy beauty, and not a veil to separate and repel us from Thee. Cause these unreal phenomena of the universe to be for us the sources of knowledge and insight, and not the cause of ignorance and blindness. Our alienation and severance from Thy beauty all proceed from ourselves. Deliver us from ourselves, and accord to us intimate knowledge of Thee.

Make my heart pure, my soul from error free,
Make tears and sighs my daily lot to be,

And lead me on Thy road away from self,
That lost to self I may draw near to Thee!

1 "It may be, O Muhammad, that thy Lord will raise thee to a glorious station" (Koran, xvii, 81), interpreted to mean his power of intercession.

2 The headings are all omitted in this manuscript, but spaces are left, which were probably intended to be filled in with gold lettering.

3 A prayer ascribed to Muḥammad. See Gulshan i Rāz, p. 21, n. 1 The divine Real Being is reflected in 'Not-being ('adm) as in a mirror, and gives it all the reality it possesses. See Gulshan i Rāz, p. 14, 1. 134. This idea comes from Plotinus, "the Shaikh of the Greeks."