castle has always been in the possession of the Sultan. When a new Sultan succeeds to the throne, one of his lords, who are called Amirra, says to him: "Lord, I have been for so long a time your slave, give me Damascus, and I will give you one hundred thousand, or two hundred thousand, teraphim2 of gold." Then the lord grants him this favour. But you must know, that if in the course of two years the said lord does not send him 25,000 teraphim, he seeks to kill him by force of arms, or in some other manner; but if he makes him the said present, he remains in the government. The said lord has always ten or twelve lords and barons of the said city with him, and when the Sultan wants two or three hundred thousand teraphim from the lords or merchants of the said city, who are not treated with justice, but whom they vie with each other in oppressing by robbery and assassination (for the Moors live under the Mamelukes like the lamb under the wolf), the said Sultan sends two letters to the governor of the said castle, one of which simply enjoins him to bring together in the castle such lords or merchants as he may think proper. And when they are assembled, the second letter is read, the object of which is immediately carried out, whether for good or for evil. And in this manner the said lord seeks to obtain money. Sometimes the said lord becomes so powerful that he will not go into the castle; whereat many barons and merchants, feeling themselves in danger, mount their horses and retire towards Turkey. We will say no more upon this subject, excepting that the men of the guard of the said castle, in each of the four great towers, are always on the watch. They make

1 Ameer.

In the Third Chapter concerning Damascus, and in some editions, this word is spelt "Saraphi" and also "Sarahpi." I take it to be the Sherif or Ashrafi, an old Arabian ducat.

3 In some editions it is the Lords and Merchants who are said to refuse to go into the castle when they have become powerful, and this appears to be the more correct reading.

no cry during the night, but each has a drum, made in the shape of a half-box,1 upon which they beat vigorously with a stick, and each answers the other with these said drums. He who delays answering for the space of a pater noster, is imprisoned for a year.

THE SECOND CHAPTER CONCERNING THE SAID

DAMASCUS.

Now that we have seen the customs of the Lord of Damascus, it is necessary that I should make mention of some circumstances relating to the city, which is extremely populous and very rich. It is impossible to imagine the richness and elegance of the workmanship there. Here you have a great abundance of grain and of meat, and the most prolific country for fruits that was ever seen, and especially for fresh grapes, during all seasons. I will mention the good and the bad fruits which grow there. Pomegranates and and quinces, good: almonds and large olives, extremely good. The most beautiful white and red roses that were ever seen. There are also good apples and pears and peaches, but with a very bad taste, the reason of which is that Damascus abounds much in water. A stream runs through the city, and the greater number of the houses have very beautiful fountains of mosaic work. The houses are

2

1 The bûz or small tabl, still generally used by the Musahhirs, who traverse the streets during the Ramadhân, to announce the hour of the Sahoor, or last meal of the early dawn.

2 It is rather surprising that no mention is made of oranges and apricots, the former being very plentiful, and the latter by far the most abundant produce of the orchards round Damascus, and one of its chief articles of export; but as Varthema left the city early in April, that fruit was not in season.

Roses, from which the rich perfume of the 'atar is extracted, are extensively cultivated in a part of the great plain about three miles from the city.

dirty externally, but within they are very beautiful, adorned with many works of marble and porphyry.

In this city there are many mosques. One, which is the principal, is as large as St. Peter's at Rome. It has no roof in the centre, but the surrounding parts are covered in. It is reported that they keep there the body of St. Zachariah the prophet, and they pay him very great honour. In the said mosque there are four principal doors of metal, and within there are many fountains. Again, we see where the canonica stood, which belonged formerly to the Christians, in which canonica there are many ancient works in mosaic.1 Again, I saw the place where they report that Christ said to St. Paul," Saule, Saule, cur me persequeris?" which is without the city, about a mile from one of the gates thereof. They bury there all the Christians who die in the said city. Again, there is that tower in the wall of the district where (as they say) St. Paul was imprisoned. The Moors have many times rebuilt it, but in the morning it is found broken and thrown down, as the angel broke it when he drew St. Paul out of the said tower. I also saw the house where (as they say) Cain slew Abel his brother, which is a mile without the city in the opposite direction, on the side of a hill in a large deep valley. We will now turn to the liberty which the said Mamelukes enjoy in the said city of Damascus.

1 The "Masjid Yahya" or " Jamäa Beni Umeyya" (the Temple of John or the Mosque of the Ommiades), a part of which is generally supposed to have formed a Christian church dedicated to St. John the Baptist, the son of Zechariah. This is still regarded as the adytum or most sacred portion of the building, and is believed by Muhammedans to contain the head of the aforesaid Apostle. A peristyle, supported on splendid Corinthian pillars, surrounds the quadrangular court, in which there are several marble fountains for religious ablution. Buckingham, like Varthema, speaks of the mosque as having been a church dedicated to St. Zechariah.

2 These and several other absurd local traditions, such as the house of Ananias, the grave of the martyr George who assisted St. Paul to escape through a window in the wall, and a cleft in the rock, about a

CHAPTER THE THIRD, CONCERNING THE MAMELUKES IN DAMASCUS.

The Mamelukes are renegade Christians, who have been purchased by the said lord. Certain it is that the said Mamelukes never lose any time, but are constantly exercising themselves either in arms or in letters, in order that they may acquire excellence. And you must know that every Mameluke, great or little, has for his pay six saraphi per month, and his expenses for himself, his horse, and a family; and they have as much more when they are engaged on any warlike expedition. The said Mamelukes, when they go about the city, are always in companies of two or three, as it would be a great disgrace if they went alone. If they accidentally meet two or three ladies, they possess this privilege, or if they do not possess it they take it: they go to lay in wait for these ladies in certain places like great inns, which are called Chano, and as the said ladies pass before the

2

mile from the city, through which the Apostle evaded his pursuers, are still current among the monks and Christians at Damascus.

1 Browne's account of the Mamlûks in Egypt in 1722, coincides in the main with the foregoing description. "These military slaves are imported from Georgia, Circassia, and Mingrelia. A few have been prisoners, taken from the Austrians and Russians, who have exchanged their religion for an establishment... Particular attention is paid to the education of these slaves. They are instructed in every exercise of agility or strength, and are in general distinguished by the grace and beauty of their persons... They have no pay, as they eat at the table in the house of their master...Any military officer may purchase a slave, who becomes ipso facto a Mamlûk. After a proper education, the candidate thus constituted a Mamlûk, receives a present of a horse and arms from his master, together with a suit of clothes, which is renewed every year in the month of Ramadhân." Browne was assured that during the eleven years preceding his visit, sixteen thousand white slaves, of both sexes, were imported into Egypt. Travels in Africa, Egypt, Syria, etc., pp. 53-56, 76.

* Khans, buildings generally designed for the accommodation of merchants and their goods. In some instances the principal bazaars are held in the khâns.

door each Mameluke takes his lady by the hand, draws her in, and does what he will with her. But the lady resists being known, because they all wear the face covered, so that they know us, but we do not know them. The Mameluke says to her, that he wishes to know who she is, and she replies: "Brother, is it not enough that you do with me what you will, without desiring to know who I am?" and she entreats him so much that he lets her go. And sometimes they think that they take the daughter of the lord, when in fact they take their own wives; and this has happened while I was there. These ladies go very well clad in silk, and over it they wear certain white garments of wool, thin and bright like silk, and they all wear white buskins and red or purple shoes, and many jewels around their heads, and in their ears, and on their hands. These ladies when they are married, at their own will and pleasure, that is, when they do not wish to remain with their husbands any longer, go to the cadi of their faith and cause themselves to be talacare,1 that is, to be separated from their husband; and then they take another, and he takes another wife. Although they say that the Moors have five or six wives, I for my part have never seen any who had more than two or three at the most. These Moors for the greater part eat in the streets, that is, where the clothes are sold; they have their food cooked and eat it there, and there are very many horses, camels, and buffalos, and sheep and goats. There is here an abundance of good fresh cheese; and if you wish to purchase milk, there are forty or fifty goats, which go every day through the district, and which have ears more than a span in length. The master of these goats takes them up into your chamber, even if your house have three stories, and

'An Italianized infinitive of the Arabic talak, to divorce. According to Muhammedan civil law a woman cannot repudiate her husband against his will, unless it be for some grievous fault or cruelty on his part, and even in that case a formal decision of the Kâdhi is necessary to dissolve the union.