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In phonetic analysis the attention is fixed on the Sounds; in orthographic analysis, on the Letters. In the former, the things represented are under consideration; in the latter, the representatives themselves.

EXAMPLES.

1. The Hebrew is a sublime monochord, uttering vague vowel sounds, as indistinct and shy as the breathings of an Æolian harp when exposed to a fitful breeze.-DE QUINCEY.

Tis a dental surd consonant letter, cognate with d; h is an aspirate consonant letter; here they are taken together as a compound sign or representative of a single sonant phonetic element; e is a vowel letter representing a phonetic element; h is a letter representing a phonetic element; e, as above; b is a cognate consonant letter, and is called a labial, and here represents a phonetic element; r is a liquid consonant letter, sometimes called a palatal, sometimes a lingual, and here represents a phonetic element; ew, a digraph, is equivalent to u, and represents a diphthongal sound. The learner is expected to go through the sentence in like manner.

2.

High on a throne of royal state, which far
Outshone the wealth of Ormus or of Ind,
Or where the gorgeous East, with richest hand,
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold,
Satan exalted sat, by merit raised

To that bad eminence.-MILTON.

His an aspirated consonant letter representing a phonetic element; i is a small vowel letter representing a phonetic element; g and h, neither separately nor taken together, represent here any phonetic element; o is a broad vowel letter representing a phonetic element; n is a liquid nasal consonant letter, sometimes called a cerebral, and here represents a phonetic element; a is a broad vowel letter representing a phonetic element; t is a dental cognate consonant letter; h is an aspirate letter; th together are a compound sign of a phonetic element; r, as before; o is a broad vowel letter, and represents a phonetic element; n, as before; e represents no phonetic element, but is used as an orthographical expedient. The learner is expected to go through the passage in like manner.

3. Analyze the following passage, and state,

(1) Which letters represent the broad vowel elements, and which letters represent small vowel elements.

(2) Which letters represent surd elements, and which represent sonant elements; which, liquid elements; which, nasal elements; which, labial elements; which, dental elements; which, palatal elements; which, sibilant elements; which, cerebral elements.

(3) Which letters are normally used in representing phonetic elements; and which letters are used abnormally in representing phonetic elements; and which letters are employed as orthographical expedients. (4) What letter (or letters) is derived from the Phoenician; what letter is derived from the Greek; what letter is derived from the Roman; what letter is derived from the Anglo-Saxon,

"Of the poetical principle, the philosophy of life in New England makes little account. Emblems of the past do not invite the gaze down the vistas of time. Reverence is seldom awakened by any object, custom, or association. An extravagant spirit of utility invades every scene of life, however sequestered. We attempt not to brighten the grim features of care, or relieve the burdens of responsibility. The daughter of a distinguished law professor in Europe was in the habit of lecturing in her father's absence. To guard against the fascination of her charms, which, it was feared, would divert the attention of the students, a curtain was drawn before the fair teacher, from behind which she imparted her instructions. Thus do we carefully keep out of sight the poetical, and veil the spirit of beauty, that we may worship undisturbed at the shrine of the practical."-H. T. TUCKERMAN.

SYNTHESIS.

1. Compose a sentence in which there shall be some letters representing the cognate phonetic elements.

2. Compose a sentence in which there shall be the representatives of the liquid phonetic elements; and one in which there shall be labial letters; and one in which there shall be dental letters; and one in which there shall be guttural or palatal letters; and one in which there shall be nasal letters; and one in which there shall be cerebral letters; and one in which there shall be sibilant letters.

3. Compose a sentence in which there shall be equivalent letters, namely, letters which abnormally or irregularly represent the same sounds which are normally or regularly represented by other letters.

4. Compose a sentence in which there shall be elementary sounds expressed by orthographical expedients.

5. Compose a sentence in which there shall be letters that come from the Hebrew Alphabet; and letters that come from the Greek Alphabet; and letters that come from the Roman Alphabet; and at least one letter that comes from the Anglo-Saxon Alphabet.

PART IV.

ETYMOLOGICAL FORMS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

CHAPTER I.

THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

DEFINITIONS.

§ 174. ETYMOLOGY, Greek etumos, true, and logos, doctrine, treats of the classification, inflection, and derivation of words. It relates to single words.

GRAMMATICAL ETYMOLOGY treats of the classification and inflection of words.

CLASSIFICATION is the division of words into parts of speech. INFLECTION is the change of form which verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs undergo in order to express different relations.

HISTORICAL ETYMOLOGY treats of the derivation of words from different languages, or from different stages of the same language. See § 306.

ETYMOLOGICAL FORMS in the English language are the words of the language viewed only in their etymological relation, whether in the same language or in other languages.

A proposition is a sentence containing an assertion; as, Man is mortal; the rain falls; the sun warms the earth. A proposition has two parts: 1. The thing spoken of, called the Subject; 2. That which is said of it, called the Predicate. Man, in the first example, is the subject; is mortal, is the predicate. In the second example the predicate is falls; in the third example the predicate is warms.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

§ 175. I. A word which is the name of a person, place,

What is etymology? Of what does grammatical etymology treat? Of what does historical etymology treat? What are etymological forms? What is classification? What is inflection? What is a proposition? Into how many parts is a proposition divided? What is the subject of a proposition? What is the predicate?

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or thing, is called a NOUN or Substantive; as, Plato, Boston, virtue.

Or, a word which can by itself, with all finite verbs, form the subject of a proposition, and with the verb to be can form the predicate of a proposition, is called a NOUN or Substantive; as, " Man dies." In this simple proposition, man is the subject. "Stand up; I also am a man.' In this proposition, man is the predicate.

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II. A word which qualifies or limits a noun is called an ADJECTIVE; as, "Wise men;""Virtuous women;" "Seven children;" "This apple." For the Article, see § 214.

Or, a word which can not by itself form the subject of a proposition, but which, with the verb to be, can form the predicate of a proposition, is called an ADJECTIVE; as, "God is good;" "Man is mortal."

III. A word used instead of a noun is called a PRONOUN; as, “I went to London ;' "Thou hast done a

good action;" "He will return.

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"The man

Or, a word which can be used instead of a noun, as either the subject or the predicate of a proposition, is called a PRONOUN; as, is happy; he is benevolent."

IV. A word which expresses an assertion is called a VERB; as, "God is," "The sun shines;" "John struck Thomas."

Or, a word which can by itself form the predicate of a proposition, is called a VERB; as, "God is ;" "Man dies."

V. A word which qualifies a verb or an adjective is called an ADVERB; as, "John struck Thomas rashly;" "The sun shines brightly;" "He is more prudent than his neighbor."

Or, a word which can not by itself form a constituent part of a simple proposition, but which can combine with verbs, and adjectives, and other adverbs to modify their meaning, is called an ADVERB; as, "He reads correctly;" "He was exceedingly careful;” “He does tolerably well."

VI. A word which connects an object with a verb or an adjective is called a PREPOSITION; as, "He went through New York;" "He belongs to no party;" "He is wise for himself."

Or, a word which by itself can not form a constituent part of a simple proposition, but which can combine with nouns and pronouns to express some relation, is called a PREPOSITION; as, "Socrates, the son of Sophroniscus, was born at Alopece."

What word is a noun? What word is an adjective? What word is a pronoun ? What word is a verb? What word is an adverb? What word is a preposition?

VII. A word which connects two sentences or like parts of sentences is called a CONJUNCTION; as, “John writes and Thomas reads;" "I will visit him if he desires it."

Or, a word which can connect two propositions without making a part of either, is called a CONJUNCTION; as, "The sun shines and the sky is clear;" "He begged for aid because he was in distress."

VIII. A word which expresses sudden emotion of the mind, and is not in grammatical construction with a sentence, is called an INTERJECTION; as, Ah! pshaw! alas!

Or, a word which can neither form a part of a proposition nor connect two different propositions, but is thrown in to express some sudden thought or emotion, is called an INTERJECTION; as, Oh! pish! fie!

In this classification we have given two definitions of the several parts of speech, the one the common one, and the other founded on their relation to the proposition.

BECKER'S CLASSIFICATION.

§ 176. All the parts of speech are divided into two classes, namely, NOTIONAL Words and RELATIONAL words.

Notional words are those which express notions, that is, ideas of beings or actions formed in the mind. They are, 1. Nouns; 2. Adjectives; 3. Verbs; 4. Adverbs, expressing the manner, time, or place of an action; as, He writes well; he came early; he went eastward.

Relational words are those words which do not express a notion or idea, but merely point out the relation between two notional words, or between a notional word and the speaker. They are, 1. Auxiliary verbs; 2. Articles; 3. Pronouns; 4. Numerals; 5. Prepositions; 6. Conjunctions; 7. Certain adverbs, called relational adverbs.

CHAPTER II.

THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE.

§ 177. A NOUN is the name of a person, place, or thing; as, Plato, Boston, virtue.

Or, a NOUN or SUBSTANTIVE is a word which can by itself, with all finite verbs, form the subject of a proposition, and with the verb to be can form the predicate of a proposition; as, "Man dies." In this sim

What word is a conjunction? What word is an interjection? State Becker's classification. Give the definition of a noun, and the derivation of the terms noun and substantive.

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