at is akin. I AND Peter walked=I with Peter walked. Its origin is doubtful.

ALSO, Anglo-Saxon eal, all, and swa, so, is a copulative with a still more specific meaning, inasmuch as it implies something of similitude with what went before.

Ir, a suppositive or conditional conjunction, originally derived from the Anglo-Saxon Gifan, to give.

As, a causal conjunction (compare German als), is a contraction of also. This will account for its being sometimes used as a pronoun. So is a relative to the antecedent as, or as is an antecedent to the relative that, which is also a pronoun, used as a conjunction.

BECAUSE, a causal conjunction, was originally a combination of words, by and cause. Some of the older writers say by cause that.

SINCE, also a causal, is from Anglo-Saxon sith or sithen=since. THEREFORE, a compound of there, dative of that, § 236, and for=for that cause, or for that reason, is a collective or illative conjunction. WHEREFORE=for which cause, is analogous to therefore in origin and

force.

THEN, an illative conjunction, is of pronominal origin. See § 236. It is also used as an adverb.

EITHER, NEITHER, OR, NOR, are simple disjunctives. They might be called alternatives, either and or being taken affirmatively, and neither and nor negatively. Either is in origin a pronoun. See § 242. Or is a contraction of other, which is also a pronoun. Neither and nor are simply either or or with a negative particle prefixed. Or is frequently followed by else, as nor is by yet.

ELSE, a simple conjunction, related to Anglo-Saxon elles, and the Latin alius.

THAN, pronominal in its origin, is reckoned by HARRIS among adversatives of comparison. See § 291.

UNLESS, from Anglo-Saxon onlesan, to loose, called by HARRIS an adversative adequate, with reference to the prevention of an event, is called by CROMBIE an exceptive.

EXCEPT appears to have the force of unless in sentences like the following: "This realme is like to lacke bothe stuffe of artillery and of artificers of the same, except a provision of due remedy in this behalf be the more speedily founde."

THOUGH is sometimes called a concessive. It is the Anglo-Saxon theah. It is an antecedent to the relative conjunctions YET and STILL; e. g.:

"Though Birnam Wood be come to Dunsinane,
Yet will I try the last."-SHAKSPEARE.

"Though I do condemn report myself

As a mere sound, I still will be so tender
Of what concerns you in all points of honor,
That the immaculate whiteness of your form
Shall never be sullied."-MASSINGER.

THE TWO WAYS IN WHICH SENTENCES ARE CONNECTED. § 304. Two sentences are connected either by way of subordination or by way of co-ordination. They are connected in the way of suborIn what two ways are sentences connected?

dination when one of them can be considered as standing in the place of a substantive, adjective, or adverb; as, "He reported that the king died" (=death of the king); "the foreigner who travels" (=traveling foreigner); "he was at work before the sun rose" (early). Conjunctions, when used to connect subordinate sentences, may be called subordinative conjunctions.

Two sentences are, on the other hand, connected in the way of coordination when they are not thus dependent one upon another; as, "He is ill, and he has called a physician;" "he goes to France, but he can not speak French." Conjunctions which express a connection of this description may be called co-ordinative conjunctions. See § 410.

CHAPTER X.
INTERJECTIONS.

§ 305. AN INTERJECTION is a word which can neither form the part of a proposition, nor connect two different propositions, but is thrown in to express some sudden thought or emotion of the mind; as, oh! pshaw! alas! The word Interjection is from the Latin word interjectio, a throwing in.

1. Of the interjections, some are Primitive or original, others are Derived from other parts of speech. The primitive interjections are a sort of universal language, yet not without some variety in different tongues. The derived interjections vary, of course, in different languages.

2. Primitive interjections, with which we are principally concerned, are all formed by onomatopoeia.

a. Some of them result from the position into which the vocal and articulating organs have a tendency to be thrown by the muscular action of the face and other parts in those movements which constitute the natural gestures or signs of emotion.

Thus pain, accompanied with languor or grief, relaxes all the muscles, and the mouth being consequently open, with the other organs in their usual state, the sound ah is produced with a monotonous and feeble intonation, and degenerating into a mere groan. Sharp and sudden pain, on the contrary, throws the muscles into a state of tension round the lips, and produces oh, with the breath drawn in, and the semitonic intonation described by Dr. RUSH.

Surprise raises the brows and opens the mouth suddenly; hence Ah! with an abrupt and upward tone, expresses that emotion.

Wonder or astonishment rounds the lips; hence results the interjection Oh! with a downward intonation.

Give examples of a sentence connected in the way of subordination, and of a sentence connected in the way of co-ordination. Give the definition of an interjection, and the origin of the term. Explain the importance of interjections as a part of language.

Contempt is accompanied with a protrusion of the lips; hence it is expressed by pish, pshaw.

b. Other primitive interjections result from the imitation of objective or outward sounds.

For instance, shoo, shoo, which is used in driving away poultry, was probably suggested by the rustling of their wings when they ran away suddenly; sheep and lambs are called by the cry of knan, knan, in imitation of the sound which they make in running to be fed; dogs are called to persons by sucking the breath through the lips, in imitation of the cry of puppies. To the onomatopoeia may also be referred such interjections as hush, 'st, whist, used to enjoin stillness and silence, as they all consist merely in atonic or whispering sounds.

3. Derived interjections are either (1.) terms descriptive of the emotion, with appropriate intonations; as, Horrid! shocking! joy! (2.) names, common and proper, used in addressing animals; (3.) verbs in the imperative mode; as, Hark! see! behold! help! halt! or nouns used as imperatives, by means of the intonation; as, Silence! peace! courage! or adverbs, used in like manner for the imperative; as, Softly! away! or (4.) abbreviated forms, used particularly by the vulgar; as, Gramercy (French grand merci, great thanks); I marry (for ay Mary); 's death (for by his death).

4. Interjections have not, in our common grammars, assumed the importance nor obtained the scientific treatment which they deserve.

For if we regard language as originating in and related to our intellectual faculties only, then interjections lose their claim to be considered parts of speech. But if we consider language in its broadest sense, as arising from our whole spiritual nature, interjections have a just claim to be considered an integral part of language.

The fact that interjections express the multiplied emotions of the human mind, and lend their aid where all other language fails in this respect; that they are the only medium of intercourse between man and the brute creation, or of animals with each other; and that they are a natural universal language, is sufficient to exhibit their importance in a philosophic view. There can be no doubt that interjections, rightly used, contribute much to render language an exact picture of the human mind.

5. Some interjections are the same in languages very remote from each other, as the following examples will show: Greek &, Latin O, Gothic o, English O, Syriac o, to call attention. Greek pheu, Latin phy, English fie, French fi, Arabic uffu, to express aversion. Greek ouai, Latin vai, Gothic vai, English woe, Hebrew oi, hoi, Arabic wa, to express grief. Latin Ah, English Ah, Hebrew ach, Arabic ah, to express grief.

English interjections are divided into,

I. Natural exclamations, expressing passion or emotion, including, 1. Passive emotions, in which the human mind is overpowered: (1.) wonder or amazement; as, Oh, pronounced with a downward inflection; (2.) pain, grief, or lamentation; as, Oh, woe, alas; (3.) loathing or aversion; as, Fie, pish, pshaw, tysh, ugh (guttural).

2. Emotions under which the mind is still active: (1.) surprise or

Mention the different classes of interjections, with examples.

admiration; as, Heigh, hoity-toity; (2.) joy or exultation; as, Huzza, hurra, joy; (3.) desire; as, O; (4.) laughter; as, Ha ha; or tittering; as, Hi hi; (5.) threatening; as, Woe.

II. Natural exclamations, expressing a state of the will, addressed to our fellow-men, or else employed to allure or drive away domestic animals.

1. Addressed to our fellow-men: (1.) calling attention generally; as, O, ho, halloo; (2.) enjoining silence; as, Hush, 'st, whist; (3.) calling attention to a particular object; as, Lo, behold, see.

2. Addressed to cows; as, Coh, coh.

3. Addressed to goats and sheep; as, Knan, knan.

4. Addressed to dogs; a whistle made by sucking the breath through the teeth.

5. Addressed to cats; as, Minny, minny; also scat.

6. Addressed to pigs; as, Pig, pig; also shogh, shogh. 7. Addressed to draught cattle; as, Haw, jee, hwo.

III. Imitations of natural sounds, whether of animals or of inanimate objects.

1. Of animals: (1.) of cows; as, Moo; (2.) of dogs; as, Bow wow ; (3.) of chickens; as, Peep, peep; (4.) of geese; as, Quack.

2. Of inanimate objects; as, of a bell, Ding dong; of a clock or watch, Tick, tick; of a drum, Row de dow dow; of a knocking at the door, Rat a tat tat; of a trumpet, Tantara, tantara; of removing a trumpet from the mouth, Bat, &c.

IV. Imitations of visible appearances; as, Flash, zigzag.

Other parts of speech are sometimes formed from interjections; as, To puff at, from puff; to ache, from Ah; the noun woe, from interjection woe.

CHAPTER XI.

DERIVATION.

§ 306. DERIVATION has been defined to be the drawing or tracing of a word from its root or original. In the grammatical sense, the cases, numbers, and genders of nouns; the persons, modes, and tenses of verbs; the ordinal numbers; the degrees of comparison, are regarded as matters of derivation.

But derivation proper comprises only those changes that words undergo which are not referable to some of the heads just mentioned. It is in this latter sense that the word is employed in this chapter. It is closely connected with ethnography. See Eng. Grammar, § 382.

What is the definition of the term derivation?

THE CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

§ 307. The English tongue, as it now exists, is not a pure, simple language, derived from one source, but it is made up of many languages. I. The Anglo-Saxon portion of the language is its basis or groundwork. Hence whole paragraphs may easily be written with this part of the language only, while without it hardly a sentence can be formed. II. Admixtures from three dead languages, viz., the Latin, the Greek, and the Hebrew.

1. The admixture of words from the ancient Latin is owing to the conquest of England by the Normans, who spoke Norman-French; to the subsequent close intercourse with the French people; and to the influence of the learned class, who studied Latin, and wrote in that language.

To the Latin family of languages belong the existing languages, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French.

2. The admixture of words from the ancient Greek is owing, for the most part, to a conventional usage among the learned of Europe, speaking different languages, of forming scientific and technical terms from the ancient Greek.

3. Admixture of words from the ancient Hebrew.

Although the Hebrew, as a spoken language, has never come in direct contact with the English, being far removed from it both in time and space, yet, through the sacred writings and other influences, the number of words derived by us from the Hebrew is not few.

The Hebrew belongs to the Shemitish family of languages, of which the Chaldaic, Syriac, Arabic, and Ethiopic are also branches.

III. Exotic or foreign terms from various living languages, owing to civil, commercial, or literary intercourse, form a third constituent part or element of the English language.

IV. Words not reducible to either of the three preceding heads form a fourth constituent part or element of the English language. These include, 1. Proper English words of mixed origin; and, 2. Malformations and hybrid words.

I. INSTINCTIVE FORMS AND PRONOMINAL ELEMENTS.

§ 308. The natural or instinctive formations, the first or lowest step in language, include interjections and imitations of natural sounds; as, Ah, oh; mew, peep. These have been already considered.

If we take a general etymological survey of pronouns and pronominal words, they will be found to arrange themselves, not under verbal roots, like other parts of speech, but under certain elementary sounds or syllables.

1. Ic, the element of the first person singular subject, appears now only in the mutilated form I. Compare Anglo-Saxon ic, Old English ic. 2. M, the element of the first person singular object, appears in me, my, mine.

In what two specific senses is it used? From what four general sources is the English language derived? Give some instances of instinctive forms.