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2. a. We also see the Anglo-Saxon addition of t in the second person singular; b. The identity in the form of the three persons of the plural number in that language; c. The change of ath into en in the Old English plural; d. The total absence of plural forms in the Modern English; e. The change of th into s in loveth and loves.

3. A sign of the first person singular is found in one verb only. In the word am (a-m) the m is no part of the root. It is the sign of the first person singular of the present indicative.

4. The sign of the second person singular is est or st; as, Thou callest. 5. The sign of the third person singular is eth or th, or else es or s; as, He calleth, he loveth; or, He calls, he loves. The first of these forms is now used only in formal discourse. It was once in common use. It is found only in the indicative mode and the present tense.

6. Through the whole of the plural there are no signs of the persons, or change of form: We call, ye call, they call.

NUMBERS OF VERBS.

§ 252. Verbs have two numbers, the SINGULAR and the PLURAL.

As compared with the present plural forms we love, ye love, they love, both the Anglo-Saxon we lufiath, ge lufiath, he lufiath, and the Old English we loven, ye loven, they loven, have a peculiar termination for the plural number, which the present language wants. And this is the case in all the Gothic languages, as well as in the Anglo-Saxon.

ANGLO-SAXON.

Arn, I ran; urnon, we run: Sang, I sang; sungon, we sung. Span, I span; spunnon, we spun: Drank, I drank; drunkon, we drunk. From these examples the reader can not fail to draw the inference, viz., that words like

Began, begun.
Ran, run.

Span, spun.

Sank, sunk.

Swam, swum.
Drank, drunk, &c.,

generally called double forms of the preterit, were originally different numbers of the same tense, the form in -u being plural.

The signs of the persons, m, st, or est, eth or s, are, in a secondary sense, the signs of number, since they are found only in the singular. But the only real sign expressive of a difference of number occurs in the past tense of the indicative mode of the verb substantive: I was, thou wast, he was; We were, ye were, they were.

TENSES OF THE VERB.

§ 253. TENSE is a form of the verb used to express the relation of time; as, I strike, I struck. Tense is from the French temps, Latin tempus, time.

How many numbers are there in verbs, and with what do they correspond, and what sign or signs are there of number? What is tense?

By combinations of words and inflections, English verbs have six tenses, namely, Primary Tenses: 1. The PRESENT; 2. The PAST; 3. The FUTURE. Secondary Tenses: 1. The PRESENT PERFECT; 2. The PAST PERFECT; 3. The FUTURE PERFECT.

FORMS FOR THE PRESENT TENSE.

§ 254. The PRESENT TENSE denotes present time. Of this there are three forms: 1. I write. This is the Simple form, and denotes habitual action and what is true at all times. 2. I am writing. This is the Progressive form, and denotes that the action is now going on. 3. I do write. This is the Emphatic form, and is used in positive assertions.

1. The present tense is often used instead of the past, in order to give animation to description. "He walks (for walked) up to him and knocks (for knocked) him down." This denotes a single action, and not the natural habitual power of the English present. The historian, the poet, and the orator make great use of this form, by which they can make the dead past become the living present.

2. The present tense is also used instead of the future when the future is conceived of as present; as, "I can not determine till the mail arrives;" "When he has an opportunity he will write." The words till, when, carry the mind to an event to happen, and we speak of it as present.

FORMS FOR THE PAST TENSE.

§ 255. The PAST TENSE, or Preterit, denotes past. time. Of this there are three forms: 1. I wrote. This is the simple form, and represents an action which took place at some time completely past. 2. I was writing. This is the progressive form, and represents the action as unfinished at a certain specified time past. speaking when he entered.'

the emphatic form.

3. I did write.

FORMS FOR THE FUTURE TENSE.

"I was

This is

$ 256. The FUTURE TENSE denotes future time. There How many, and what tenses are there? What does present tense denote, and what are the three forms? Is the present tense ever used for the past and the future? Give examples. What does past tense denote, and what are the three forms? What does future tense denote ?

are two forins: 1. I shall write. This is the simple form, and represents an action that is yet to come. 2. I shall be writing. This is the progressive form, and expresses an action which is to take place at a future specified time. Both forms are expressed in the English by the combination of will or shall with an infinitive mode.

"In the first person simply shall foretells;

In will a threat, or else a promise dwells.

Shall, in the second and the third, does threat;

Will simply, then, foretells the future feat."-BRIGHTLAND.

When speaking in the first person, we speak submissively; when speaking to or of another, we speak courteously. In the older writers, in the translation of the Bible, for instance, shall is applied to all three persons. We had not then reached that stage of politeness which shrinks from the appearance of speaking compulsorily to another.

ent.

FORMS FOR THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

§ 257. The PRESENT PERFECT TENSE denotes past time completed in the present, or connected with the presOf this there are two forms: 1. "I have written a letter." This is the simple form, and represents an action as having been finished in some time past, reckoning from the present. 2. "I have been writing these two hours." This is the progressive form, and represents an action as just finished. The first is expressed by the auxiliary verb have and the passive participle. See § 275.

If a particular time not connected with the present is mentioned, the tense must be the past; as, "I finished the work last week." "I have seen my friend last week" is not correct English.

FORMS FOR THE PAST PERFECT TENSE.

§ 258. The PAST PERFECT denotes past time that precedes some other past time. Of this there are two forms: 1. "I had written the letter before he arrived." This is the simple form, and represents the action as past before some other past time specified. 2. "I had been writing before he arrived." This is the progressive

What are the two forms of the future tense? What does the present future tense denote, and what are its two forms? What does the past perfect denote, and what are its two forms?

form, and represents that the action was going on before another action took place.

FORMS FOR THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

§ 259. The FUTURE PERFECT denotes future time that precedes some other future time. Of this there are two forms: 1. "I shall have written the letter before the mail is closed." This is the simple form, and denotes an action which will be past at a future time specified. 2. "I shall have been writing an hour before the mail is closed." This is the progressive form, and represents that an action will be going on before a certain other future action will take place.

There are other grammatical forms for expressing future time; as, "I am going to write;" "I am about to write." In the sentence "I have to pay a sum of money to-morrow," there is implied a present necessity to do a future act. The substantive verb, followed by an adjective verb, forms another idiomatic expression of future time; as, "John is to command a regiment."

Of the two examples in section 253, I strike, I struck, the first implies an action taking place at the time of speaking, the second marks an action that has already taken place. These two motions of present and past time, being expressed by a change of form, are etymologically true tenses. They are the only true tenses (i. e., on the ground of inflection) in the language. In I was beating, I have beaten, I had beaten, and I shall beat, a difference of time is expressed; but as it is expressed by a combination of words and not by a change of form, no true tenses are constituted.

MODES OF THE VERB.

It

§ 260. MODE denotes those forms which the verb assumes in order to express the relation of reality or existence as conceived of by the speaker. See § 262. shows the manner, Latin modus, in which an attribute is asserted of the subject.

I. The INDICATIVE mode is that form of the verb which expresses direct assertion or interrogation; as, "He teaches," "Do they learn ?" It is used for actual existence.

What does the future perfect denote, and what are its two forms? What is said of strike and struck? What does mode denote? What does the indicative mode denote? Give an example. What is it used for?

II. The SUBJUNCTIVE mode is that form of the verb which expresses conditional assertion; as, "If he were there;"Though he write." It is used for doubtful existence.

III. The POTENTIAL mode is that form of the verb which expresses assertions implying possibility, contingency, or necessity; as, "He can write;" "He may go;" "He must submit." It is used for possible or necessary existence.

IV. The IMPERATIVE mode is that form of the verb which expresses the will of the speaker; as, "Depart thou;" "Let us stay," "Go in peace." This is used for desired existence.

The INFINITIVE is that form of the verb which is not limited to any particular person or number; as, To rest; to learn. It is used for existence in general. It partakes of the nature of an abstract noun. The verb in this form does not assert or predicate.

The participle is a form of the verb partaking of the nature of the adjective, just as the infinitive mode partakes of the nature of a noun. Indicative, from the Latin indicare, is so called because its chief use is to point out or indicate simply and absolutely. When used in asking questions, the order, but not the form of the words, is changed.

Subjunctive, from subjungere, to subjoin, is so called because the tenses of the subjunctive mode are generally subjoined to other verbs. It is commonly denoted by certain conjunctions, as if, lest, though, that, unless. Potential, from potentialis, posse, to be able, is so called because the idea of power is prominent in this form of the verb. It is denoted by the signs can, may, must, could, might, should, and would.

Imperative, from imperare, to command, is so called because it is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating.

Infinitive, from infinitus, unlimited, is so called from its not being limited to a particular subject as to person or number, as the other forms of the verb, which are called finite. This form of the verb is usually denoted by the preposition to.

THE ANGLO-SAXON MODES.

§ 261. The Anglo-Saxon has four modes of the verb, the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the Infinitive, for which there were corresponding inflections.

What does the subjunctive mode express? for? What does the potential mode express? for? What does the imperative mode express? for? What is the infinitive? Give an example.

Give an example.
Give an example.
Give an example.
What is it used for?

What is it used
What is it used
What is it used

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