a pronoun in the accusative. When himself and themselves are used as nominatives, the two words himself, themselves, must be viewed each as a single word compounded; and even then the compound will be of an irregular kind, inasmuch as the inflectional element -m is dealt with as part and parcel of the root. See LATHAM and GUEST, Lon. Phil. Soc., vol. i., p. 26.

Formerly hisself and theirselves were in use even in the objective case, after a preposition. "Every of us, each for hisself, labored how to recover him."-SYDNEY. "That they would willingly and of theirselves endeavor to keep a perpetual chastity." Ourself is peculiar to the regal style.

Self is sometimes used as an adjective; as, "At that self-same moment.”—DRYDEN. Self-same is equivalent to “very same.'

"SELF" EMPHATIC.

§ 234. In the nominative case, and sometimes when governed by a preposition, the compounds of self express emphasis; as, I myself will write; I will examine for myself; thou thyself shalt go; thou shalt see for thyself; you yourself shall write; you shall see for yourself; he himself shall write; he shall examine for himself; she herself shall write; she shall examine for herself; the child itself shall be carried; it shall be present itself.

To make the genitives his, her, its, our, your, their, mine, thine, emphatic or reflective, the pronominal adjective own is used; as, "He killed himself with his own sword;" "let them fall by their own counsel."

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

§ 235. A DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN is a pronoun which eminently points out the object to which it relates.

The Demonstrative Pronouns (Latin demonstrare, to show) are THIS, plural THESE; THAT, plural THOSE; as, This is true charity: that is only its image."

66

"The only good on earth

Was pleasure; not to follow that was sin."

In the last example, that stands for "pleasure," and not for that pleasure. It is therefore, in this case, a pronoun, and not an adjective.

This refers to the nearest person or thing, and that to the most distant. This indicates the latter or last mentioned, that the former or first mentioned; as, “Both wealth and poverty offer temptations; that tends to excite pride; this discontent."

In what instances is self used as an adjective? In what cases is self emphatic? What is said of own in this connection? What is a demonstrative pronoun? Mention the demonstrative pronouns, and give examples of their use.

The words such and same have also been called demonstrative pronouns.

COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY.

§ 236. THIS and THESE answer to the Latin hic and hi, and to the Greek outos, outoi; THAT and THOSE, to the Latin ille and illi, and the Greek ekeinos, ekeinoi.

館

Dat., Thisum,

Gen., Thises,

Thissa, Thissa.

1. The cases marked in italics are in the present language. Throughout the Indo-European tribe, the demonstrative idea is expressed by t, or by some modification of it. Sanscrit tat, that; tataras, such a one out of two. Lithuanic tas, he; toks, such. Slavonic tako, so. Latin tot, talis, tantum. Greek tosos, toios, tote. English this, that, thus.

2. THESE. The s is no inflection, but a radical part of the word, like the s in geese. The form in Anglo-Saxon is thâs. According to GUEST, the plural termination of the word is the letter e, and this e is the Old English and the Anglo-Saxon adjective plural; so that thes-e is formed from thes, as gode (=boni) is formed from god (bonus).

3. THOSE is perhaps the Anglo-Saxon thá, with the s added; or, perhaps, the thas, from this, with its power altered. The English form they is illustrated by the Anglo-Saxon form thage-thá. There is much uncertainty resting upon the doctrine of the forms in question.

4. This, that, these, those, such, and some, are more commonly classed. with adjective pronouns.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

§ 237. A RELATIVE PRONOUN is a pronoun which stands for some preceding word or phrase, called the antecedent, and performs the office of a conjunction in connecting sentences.

From what are this and that derived? In the Indo-European stock of languages, how is the demonstrative idea expressed? In the Anglo-Saxon, what is the form for these? In the Anglo-Saxon, what are the equivalents of those? What is a relative pronoun, and what office does it perform?

The relative pronouns (Latin relatum, refero) are WHO, WHICH, THAT, and What.

Who is applied to persons; as, "This is the orator who will speak to-morrow. It is figuratively applied to things. See § 376.

WHICH was formerly applied to persons as well as things; as, "Our Father which art in heaven." It is now applied only to animals, and things without life; as, "This is the horse which I bought yesterday;" "Here is the book which I am studying."

THAT is used for who or which, and is applied to both persons and things.

WHO and WHICH are the same in both numbers, and are thus declined:

Sing. and Plur.

Nom., Who.

Poss., Whose.

Obj., Whom.

Sing. and Plur.

Which.

Whose.

Which (see § 240).

WHOSE, being the possessive case of both who and. which, is applied to persons as well as things.

WHAT admits of no variation. It was the neuter of who.

I. 1. WHICH is a substitute for a sentence, or a part of a sentence, as well as for a single word; as, "We are bound to obey all the divine commands, which we can not do without divine aid."

2. WHICH is sometimes used as an adjective, or with noun subjoined; as, "For which reason he will do it."

3. WHICH Sometimes relates to persons; as, "He told me which of the two men was innocent."

II. 1. WHAT is used to introduce a relative clause when the clause is used substantively. In Saxon, who and its neuter what were interrogatives, and not relatives. What has never completely assumed the construction of a relative, but still retains the modes of limitation of the interrogative. It admits no immediate antecedent. The use of one is vulgar. See § 376, Rule XX. What is used in either the singular or the plural number; as, "This book is what is wanted;" "These books

are what are wanted."

2. WHAT is sometimes used as an adjective, either in the singular or plural number; as, "In what character Butler was admitted into the lady's service is not known;" "It is not material what names are assigned to them."

Which are the relative pronouns? What is said of who; also of which; and also of that; and also of what? Decline who and which. Does what admit of any variation? Mention the several ways in which which is used; and in which what is used.

3. WHAT is sometimes used for whatever; as, yon forbidden field?"

"What god but enters

4. WHAT Sometimes stands for an indefinite idea; as, "He cares not what he says or does."

5. WHAT Sometimes stands for a sentence or clause; as, "I tell thee what, corporal, I could tear her." Here "I could tear her" is explanatory of what.

6. WHAT is sometimes used as an interjection; as, "What! can you lull the winged winds asleep?"

III. 1. THAT is a relative pronoun when it is convertible into who or which; as, "The man that rode, the horse that fell."

2. THAT is a pronominal adjective when it defines or limits a substantive; as, "That flower is beautiful."

3. THAT is a demonstrative pronoun when it represents a noun and is not a relative. See § 235.

4. THAT is a conjunction when it serves merely to connect sentences; as, "I eat that I may live."

The word as is sometimes used as a relative pronoun; as, "The man as rides to market."

COMPOUND RELATIVES.

§ 238. WHO, WHICH, and WHAT have sometimes the words ever and soever annexed to them; as, Whoever, whichever, whatever, whosoever, whichsoever, and whatsoever. These words have the same construction as what; as, "Whoever will follow Christ must expect reproach;" "At once came forth whatever creeps."

SUBJUNCTIVE AND PREPOSITIVE PRONOUNS.

239. The Relative Pronouns WHO, WHICH, and THAT have been called subjunctive, because they can not introduce an independent sentence or proposition, but serve only to subjoin one to another which is previous.

The Personal Pronouns, on the other hand, have been called prepositive, because they are capable of leading or introducing a sentence, without having any reference, at least for the purposes of construction, to any thing previous. Of the nature of the subjunctive pronouns are the interrogative pronouns.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

§ 240. An INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN is a pronoun used in asking questions.

WHO, WHICH, and WHAT are called Interrogatives (Latin interrogare, to ask) when they are used in asking questions; as, Who is there? Which is the book?

Mention the several ways in which that is used. Mention the compound relatives, and state how they are formed. State the distinction between the subjunctive pronouns and the prepositive pronouns. What is an interrogative pronoun? Which are the interrogative pronouns ?

What are you doing? Interrogative pronouns are those by which the demonstrative relation of a person or thing is asked.

1. WHO, used interrogatively, is applied to persons; WHICH and WHAT to both persons and things.

2. Whether, signifying which of the two, was anciently used as an interrogative; as, "Whether is greater, the gold or the temple ?" In this sense it is now obsolete, being replaced by WHICH.

3. A Relative refers to a subject that is antecedent; an Interrogative to one that is subsequent; as, "John, who did it;" "Who did it? John."

4. WHO inquires for the name; WHICH, for the individual; WHAT, for the character or occupation. Thus, Who wrote the book? Mr. Webster. Which of the Websters? Noah Webster. What was he?

A lexicographer.

5. WHO is applied to persons indefinitely, but WHICH is applied to persons definitely. "Who will go up with me to Ramoth-Gilead ?" is indefinitely proposed to all who shall hear the question. "Which of you, with taking thought, can add to his stature one cubit ?" is an interrogation addressed to an individual, as appears from the partitive form of the words “which of you”=“ what one of you all.”

COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY.

§ 241. Throughout the Indo-European tribes the interrogative or relative idea is expressed by k, or by a modification of k; e. g., qu, hv, or h; as, Sanscrit kas, who; kataras, which of two; katama, which of many; Lithuanic kas, who; koks, of what sort; Russian kto, who; kolik, how great; Bohemian kotory, which; Latin quot, qualis, quantus; Ionic Greek kosos, koios, kote; Moso-Gothic hvas, who; Old German huer; English who, what, why, which, where.

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

§ 242. An ADJECTIVE PRONOUN is a pronoun which partakes of the nature of an adjective.

EACH, Anglo-Saxon alc, is sometimes called a distributive, because it denotes all the individuals of a number taken separately; as, "The four beasts had each of them six wings." "The prince had a bodyguard of a thousand men, each of whom was six feet high.' In these two examples each is used in its Pronominal character. "He exacted of each man fifty shekels." In this passage each is an adjective.

EVERY, Old English everich, everech, everilk one ever each, denotes all the individuals of a number greater than two, separately considered. "Each and every of the clauses and conditions." Here every is a Pronoun. "Every man's performances." Here every is an Adjective. EITHER, Anglo-Saxon ægther, denotes one of two, but not both.

State how who, which, and what, and whether are used. What is the difference between who and which in their application to persons? In the Indo-European languages, how is the relative idea expressed? What is an adjective pronoun ?