advances of physical philosophy in its several | ence-are the vulgarities of manufacturing branches. They are doing this whether they art, or, at least, they are things long and know it or not; and they are doing it in well known among the skilled workmen in various ways; and if this fact were not that line. The fact, the law, in the one case, is merely known as it is, but practically con- carried with solemn ceremony to its place to sidered as it ought, it might be turned to sustain an existing theory; in the other case, great account. it is rudely and, perhaps, with an absurdity Those arts and processes (demanding di- appended-colloquially embodied in some vision of labour and capital) by means of worn apophthegm of the "trade." which the materials put before us in the But secondly, it is the manufacturing sysstore-house of Nature, are wrought upon, tem in all its branches, taken as a whole, so as to render them available for the use which gives us the most intimate and extenand pleasure of civilized communities, ought, sive knowledge of that vast assemblage of in the first place, to be regarded as constitu- SUBSTANCES which are catalogued as the goods ting a system of operations which bring men and chattels of the three kingdoms of nature into intimate and familiar correspondence (once more to use an old-fashioned expreswith ALL, or nearly all, THE KNOWN PROPER- Sion.) The reader, however little initiated TIES OF THE MATERIAL WOrld. The savage he may be in the mysteries of manufacturing man has an instinctive consciousness of some art, would think we were treating him as a few of the properties and laws of the world child, if we gravely informed him that these through which he roams; but the manufac- arts, which contribute so much to his comturing man, if we think of him in the ab- fort, safety, health, and pleasures, convert to stract, has schooled himself laboriously in a various uses very many substances; for inperceptive and an apprehensive acquaintance stance-all the perfect metals-many of with properties and laws, with functions and the imperfect metals-clays, slates, marbles, affinities, with things statical, with things precious stones, flint;-the bones, the skins, dynamical, which only to catalogue them the tendons, the horns, the hoofs, the inteswith the needful precision, would fill vol- tines, the secretions of animals;-and then umes. Whether there be physical philoso- the countless substances of the vegetable phy in a country or not, if there be the in- kingdom-woods, barks, roots, foliages, dustrial arts, if a vast manufacturing system fruits, gums, resins, spirits, aromas, juices, be carried on there, then it is certain that more than could soon be recollected. As the human mind has already brought itself much learning as this may be found in into a position of the closest familiarity, as any educational book. But now, if we well with the primary properties of matter take in hand any one of the principal manas with the secondary; and that it is ac-ufactures, whatever may be the material quainted with those conditions of the material world which are universal, and with those also that are special and contingent: it is conversant with qualities obvious, and with qualities recondite, with results which no sagacity could have foreseen, and which seem incredible when they occur.

upon which labour has been expended, we may safely assume that a dozen, or twenty other substances-minerals, or metals, or organic products, animal or vegetable-have been made use of in the course of that process which has at length brought the article in question into the hands of the consumer. If that knowledge of the properties and And how curiously recondite are some of of the laws of the material world which the those substances or products which have lent physical sciences make profession of, be, their aid in some stage of those elaborate as undoubtedly it is, more comprehensive, processes! The uninitiated would not easily more systematic, and more logically cohe-imagine what a ransacking of earth's surface rent than that which the operative common- there has been-its surface and its bowelswealth has empirically acquired, this latter the depths of the ocean-deserts, wilderis, in very many instances, if not universally nesses, rivers, lakes, mountain tops! what so, more intimate and, in a sense, it is more an eager qnest there has been in search of authentic than the former, inasmuch as it has substances, mineral, animal, or vegetable, accrued in a spontaneous manner from a which, when nothing else in nature would do broad surface of actual experience. The it, would help the perplexed workman to "Transactions" of scientific corporations con- surmount some special difficulty in his art. tain the record of facts which have been the Very many instances might be brought forresult of, perhaps, a score or a hundred va- ward from the history of manufacturing art, ried experiments. But go the round of the in which a certain process, highly important shops and laboratories in certain lines of in its commercial bearing, has been foreseen business, and you will find that these same to be practicable by introducing a genus of facts-which constitute the rarities of sci- substances-say, a metal, an earth, a salt, an

acid. A lucky initial experiment, which, factory roofs-its tens of thousands of peofrom some unknown cause, could not be ple, intent from early till late upon their repeated, has fanned the hopes of the san- several tasks; imagine that what we behold guine inventor. At length his patient en- is, and so, in fact, it is, a vast laboratory, deavours are rewarded by finding out what wherein scientific manipulations, on the lar species of that same genus it is which meets gest scale, are incessantly in progress. If the requirements of the work; and yet even we are to count philosophers by tens, we now his success is only partial-or the result must count these practical philosophers by is precarious the failures are frequent, and tens of thousands. Or look at them under those about him (those whose most natural the same aspect as labourers on the same muscular action is the shrugging the shoul- field, and as busied with the very same laws, ders) tell him plainly, "It won't do-from and as experimenting upon the very same the first I knew it never would do." Stung classes of bodies, and then we shall incline by these jeers, the workman, or inventor, if to think that the FEW quite misunderstand he does not resort to magical arts-literally their own position, and quite overlook their fingers and turns over all possibilities that own interests, if they fail to institute, and to are embraced within the arms of the species keep alive, an interchange of experiences which he has in view:-yes! and at length, with the MANY. upon the top shelf of Dame Nature's lumber room, he finds the very stuff that "will do." All now confess the advent of an important discovery!-shoulders fall, and means are forthwith resorted to for giving effect to this "new process."

But again, we hear now and then, with amazement, of some munificent five hundred pounds that has been conceded by a scientific corporation to Professor Somebody, to enable him to prosecute a particular inquiry. Surely, one says to one's-self, surely this In the use of metals for mechanical or land of ours must be at once enormously manufacturing purposes, frequent instances wealthy, and nobly-minded too, seeing that occur in which the only metallic product it hands over two, three, five hundred pounds which will satisfy the conditions of a difficult sterling, once in twelve months, for the adoperation, or a peculiar structure or movement, is an alloy of definite proportions; and not only so, but the mixture must have been effected with the most exact regard to the point of fusion, and even to the state of the weather. Look, for instance, to some processes in the art of gilding, or look at the endless intricacies that are involved in those arts, the object of which is to produce brilliant, permanent, and peculiar tints. The craft of the potter embraces many such niceties; and so does that of the worker in enamel; and so, especially, does that of the calico-printer.

Thus it is, then, that the wide range of the manufacturing system involves an intimate acquaintance, first, with those laws of nature and those properties of bodies which are the subject of scientific GENERALIZATION; and secondly, an extensive acquaintance with Nature, regarded as the field of scientific CLAS

SIFICATION.

vancement of science! Meantime, what millions sterling is it, in fixed capital, and in floating, that in these manufacturing countries, are employed in practically working out the problems of mechanical and physical science! On this field, assuredly, money is not grudged; processes that are seen to be valid and good, do not fail of their results, or flag, or want for cash. Would it not be well, therefore, that the small and povertystricken company of the professors of sciences should keep themselves in correspondence with the lordly guild of manufacturers, some of whom pay weekly wages exceeding in amount the annual revenues of all the scientific corporations of Europe put together?

To some small extent, we grant it, there does exist a mutuality; to some limited extent there is an interchange of mind—a correspondence, a recognised reciprocity, conaecting, remotely and casually, the scientific with the manufacturing communities. Yet, when thought of as now, in relation But this relationship is not at present well to the physical sciences, the manufacturing understood as to its grounds; nor are effecsystem commands--we ought to say, it might tive means employed for rendering the inwell command-the respectful regard of all terchange of scientific with practical knowmen devoted to the prosecution of them, on ledge nearly so advantageous as it might these two other grounds, each of which is become to both parties, and in different singly of high significance. For a moment ways. Is it so, indeed, that the professors then, imagine that, when we are looking of science occupy a lofty position, as at the down from some neighbouring height upon radiating centre of an effulgence which the a smoke-enveloped town, with its hundreds manufacturing world beneath may be alof tall engine chimneys-its hundreds of lowed to gaze at with awe? We do not

think this is quite the true statement of accordingly is made a mystery, and is sethe relative place or function of the two creted as a treasure. bodies.

Let an answer, in detail, be given to this inquiry. At this present time what are those actual acquirements or accomplishments which qualify the philosophical and scientific Faculty to teach and to guide the manufacturing commonwealth? An answer to this question, to be useful and complete, would fill a volume. Nevertheless we beg leave to suggest something, very briefly, which may tend to bring out an answer.

In relation to machines of the first-named class, and upon the productive powers of which vast interests depend, mechanical skill of the highest order-inventive genius, stimulated by inducements the most potent

But when we grant that the principles of mechanics have been applied, of late, in an admirable manner, to manufacturing purposes, a distinction must be kept in view. Manufacturing machinery is of two kinds : it is either a complicated appliance, concentred upon, or coming to its issue in, one sort of result; that is to say, in the production of one article, or species of article;-or else it is merely subsidiary, promoting and facilitating, in various ways, the course of Mathematical science, in its several an elaborate process, which results in the branches, and those derived sciences also production of goods of various kinds. In which have their sphere within range of the the spinning machinery, in power-loom methods of mathematical demonstration, weaving, in card-making, in lace-making, one stand in relationship toward the manufac- result-yarn, cloth, cards, lace, is the proturing system at large, which differs essen- duct of one order of mechanism, (however tially from that of the less absolute physi- many may be the individual machines, or cal sciences. For instance, Mechanics, in their diversities;) but in the several branches its several departments, coming wholly or of the pottery business-in calico-printing, partially under the control of mathematical in tool-making, in iron foundries-various reasoning, deductive and analytical-and machines, accomplishing different and indethis includes hydraulics, hydrostatics, pneu- pendent purposes, are set agoing to take matics, and whatever deals with matter in their separate part in carrying forward the the mass, and as subject to the laws of different stages of a complicated and much gravitation, vis inertia, momentum-these diversified process. sciences, which find their immediate application in the construction and working of mechanical structures, have at this time, or we might say in the course of the last seventy years, been brought to take their bearing, with incalculable advantage, upon the great manufacturing movements of this and other countries. The last twenty-five years, to look no further back, have witnessed many of these felicitous applications, which may well amaze and astound those But it is far otherwise as to that miscellawho look at them only in their present neous mass of machinery which, as we have results, and who know little of the anteced- said, performs a subsidiary office, and the ents out of which they have come. It functions of which, in certain cases, might might seem as if within this region, at least, be performed by cheap hand labour. Mathere was little room, either to look for, or chines of this class seldom attract much ateven to desire, any material improvements. tention: they are thought of often as being Nevertheless that sort of systematic inter- of doubtful advantage; and expenditure change or communionship, which we shall upon them, in the way of improvement, presently venture to recommend, would as would be grudged; proposals for improvewe think, bring about a conviction on both ment are therefore faintly regarded. It is sides the scientific side and the operative not always understood, not even by intellithat there is still work to be done; and gent principals, that a faulty mechanism, that there are many desiderata to be sup- which imperfectly does its work, which conplied, and that therefore a better under- sumes much more engine power than it uses, standing, on both sides, as to what is possi- and which is the fruitful source of jobs, of ble, and as to what is the most urgently breakages, of misfits, and the like, costs as needed, is not likely to come about so long much (or more) per week as the wages of as two classes, whose labours tend toward a dozen workmen; and that if it would be the same results, stand apart, or are held well to discharge a gang of idle fellows, asunder by, perhaps, some superciliousness the same prudent economy would demand. on the one side, and by a consciousness on the the substitution of an effective machine for other, of being already in possession of a cumbrous and faulty one.

have long been concentrated; and as to most of these instances, it may be presumed, that ingenuity, science, and capital together, have reached the ne plus ultra of mechanical perfection.

knowledge which is of great value, which Any one who is gifted with mechanical

perception may soon convince himself, in not only is the machine itself idle, but two or making the round of a manufacturing dis- three of the men that attend it are folding their trict, that very much remains to be done in arms, and leaning against the rails for a chat. reforming the machineries of this secondary In the instance of compound machines, or those ou subsidiary order, before it can be said that in which a multiplied product is obtained— science and skill have, in this department, such as ribbon-weaving, lace-making, and well done their part. Many instances might small wares-undue speed, in addition to be named which exhibit a marvellous misap- the mischiefs above mentioned, which they prehension even of first principles in me- fully share, there occur, almost in every chanics. If a question be put in any such five minutes, the break of a thread, or a case, the answer is of this sort, "Oh, well, we have used that sort of machine so long as I can remember-these forty years perhaps, and it does well enough."

knot, or something wrong in one out of fourand-twenty movements, which something cannot be set right otherwise than by putting the machine itself out of geer; thus inflicting a three minutes' stand-still, or more, upon three-and-twenty reels or spindles, equal, if we are right, to the loss of an hour's productive time.

This leads us to mention what must stand

The loss and damage arising from the sources to which we are now referring, are attributable to causes which may be thus classified.-FIRST, There are to be found in most extensive establishments machines of the subsidiary kind, which are of obsolete as the THIRD class of wasteful misadjustconstruction, and which are allowed from ments, frequently met with in manufactories. year to year to stand in the room of such This happens in those cases (which are of conas embody very important recent improve- stant occurrence) where a long series of opements. It is mortifying to witness the rations is going on in the course of which, blundering performances of machinery, in- if economy be strictly regarded, one should volving a large weekly cost, which might so relate to the other in speed as that, in no be supplanted by a moderate outlay. In part of the series there shall be a waiting frequent instances of this kind it is the in- for a supply, and in no part a glut or overterference of patent rights which stands flow. Much skilful management, and often in the way of improvements the most urg- some refined calculations, are required to ently needed. Sometimes a "license to exclude entirely these fallings short, or these use" is regarded as too expensive; and redundancies which, after all care, are sometimes it is an unreasonable jealousy sometimes inevitable. But a fruitful source between rival establishments which forbids of them is the ill-considerate rate of speed the introduction of an invention, although which is given to a machine-itself perhaps known to be highly important, but for em- capable of unlimited speed, but which, if it ploying which a treaty must be entered were constantly going at that rate, would into with a neighbour who is a rival manu- deluge the next ensuing machine with mafacturer. SECONDLY, A natural impulse, terial. To prevent which inconvenience, the urging manufacturers to bring their ma- said precursive machine gallops one hour chinery into its maximum condition of pro-and stands still three. If it did but keep ductiveness, or technically, "to turn off the on the trot all day, it would do its own greatest possible quantity of goods weekly," leads them to quicken "the speeds," or rate of going, from point to point, until the limits of mechanical possibility (with advantage) have been far surpassed. This fruitful and extensive source of spoiled work, and of costly "breakings down," is so prevalent that instances of it are to be found on all sides. In the case of simple machines, namely, those which turn out one thing at a time, the mischiefs accruing from over speed are such as these the breaking out of teeth in the geering, the snapping of spindles, the snapping off of head stocks, the general wear and tear of the machine beyond what is right, the eccentric action of all the revolving parts of the machine, and the heating of the working parts to a degree which makes an actual stop from time to time necessary, during which cooling times,

work far better than it does-would keep its hands out of idleness, and would prevent a choking in the next shop.

In those instances, and they are not unfrequent, in which subsidiary machinery has received effective amendments, it has often been from the suggestions or inventions of men of the operative class. It is these who know where "the hitch is"-it is these who bear the blame of mischances, which in fact are the consequences of ill-constructed machines: and more than this, it is these working men that familiarly understand that which scientific mechanics are so often ignorant of, namely, the difference between the practicable and the impracticable-first in the construction, and then in the continuous action, month after month, of a complicated, or of a compound machine. On this ground again there is great reason for wish

ing that a systematic interchange of know- foundations, we should find that the patches. ledge the scientific and the practical- of things that are practically known are far could be established and maintained, within from coinciding with the patches which are the circuit of the manufacturing region. known to, and which have been mapped out At every step of our progress outward by science. Unless by chance, these districts from the demonstrative sciences toward are not conterminous; for to the right hand those which are empirical and inductive, the and to the left hand there are leagues of waste border-land widens, within and upon which country, which in respect either of science what is well known as insulated fact, in labo- or of art, must be set down as "no man's ratories, (manufacturing) in foundries, and land." And yet, if men of science on the in work-shops, especially those wherein the one side, and men of practice on the other decorative arts are carried on, is either whol-side, were to come into constant communily unknown among the professors of philo- cation-jealousies apart--superciliousness sophy, or it has been only casually and very apart-the prejudices of knowledge and the imperfectly recognised, and is left by them prejudices of ignorance all laid aside, it is unexplained. From factories and shops of not to be doubted that rapid advances would the class now in our view, volumes of in- be made; and so it would be in frequent instances might soon be got together in which stances that Philosophy looking down from things "perplexing, unaccountable," receive its heaven, and Truth springing up out of the no solution whatever, or are not even men- earth, the two would kiss each other, and tioned in any scientific work. The answer both would be made glad; not to speak of so frequently given by workmen to the the consolations thence accruing to the emquestion, "How is this? What is the rea- ployers of capital.

son of this?" that is to say, of some unusual If the particular instances were followed result which baffles the skill of everybody, up in any one direction over the ground that must be familiar to those who have experi- is now before us, they would convincingly mented in manufacturing processes. "No-show that science has very much to learn in body on earth can tell you the cause of it ::- order to complete her own cyclopædia; and it will be so sometimes :-it is the nature of that manufacturing art has also very much to the thing." No doubt it "is the nature of the thing," but a perplexing mystery of this sort is precisely one of those instances which science should the most eagerly catch at, nor let go her hold of it until at least an approximate solution has been found; or, in other words, until this instance, apparently anomalous as it is, has been brought by generalization to take its place in relation to some known law. In some casual instances one might imagine that the inner constitution of things-the abstruse synthesis of the material world, were for an instant laid bare by the occurrence of a rent in the crust.

do in facilitating its processes and in economizing its means. As to these, namely, the means of the manufacturing system-its capital, we do not hesitate to express the belief that, if the entire loss and waste occurring ordinarily in any one branch of this system, through mistaken methods, could be approximately calculated, the amount would astound and frighten those whose interests are, in this manner, compromised, from year to year; and that as a consequence of such revelations no costs would be regarded which might bring about a reform.

Limited as we are as to space, we must abstain from details which would find their When, as now, we are thinking of those fitting place in a treatise. Yet let leave be of the physical sciences which stretch beyond given for some illustration of our meaning. the range of mathematical methods of proof, The metals-the perfect and the imperfect, it must not be pretended in behalf of them are subjected to an almost countless variety that the region which they have brought un- of processes within the range of the manuder culture, and which they may lay claim facturing system, either primarily as the mato as their own, is embraced, as we say, terial upon which labour expends itself, or, within-"a ring fence." To change our fig- in a secondary manner, as the means or imure, the mainland of physical science shoots plements of those primary labours. In the out tongues of land in this and that direction, course of these infinitely diversified operaseaward, upon the infinite unknown-the tions, the metals-iron, copper, tin, zinc, boundless ocean of Nature, over the billows lead, mercury, platina, silver, gold. antimoof which man looks perpetually with insati-ny, arsenic, bismuth, cobalt, manganese, are able curiosity. But now, if shifting our po- subjected, 1st, to mechanical action, in the sition, we were to set forward toward the various modes of crushing, planing, planish same vast world of the unknown, starting ing, drawing out, stamping, and compressfrom that empirical terra firma whereupon ing; 2dly, to the action of heat, in the the manufacturing arts have rested their several modes of fusing, carbonizing, subli