his party, 107.-Executed, 108.-Destruction, by the Revolution, of all its supporters, 112.-Manner in which the public mind is corrupted, 114.—Inefficacy of juries, 115.-Robespierre the incarnation of the Revolution, ib.— Errors of his principles, 116.-Cause of the atrocities of the Revolution, ib.Character of the Jacobins, 117. CHAPTER XVI.-CAMPAIGN OF 1794. Effects of the Revolution on the strength of France, 120.-Her navy, 121.Suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act, ib.-Trials for treason, 122.-Discussion on the war, 125.-Supplies for the year 1794, 127.-British conquests in the West Indies, ib.--St Domingo, ib.-Corsica reduced, 128.-Battle of the 1st June, ib.-Arrival of the American convoy, 132.-Preparations of the French, 133.-Efforts to hold together the alliance, 135.-Prussia begins to withdraw, 136.-Forces of the parties, 137.-Landrecies taken; defeat of the French at Troisville, 138.-Defeat of Clairfait, ib.-Actions on the Sambre, 139.-Battle of Turcoing, 140.-The abandonment of Flanders resolved on, 142.-Investment of Charleroi, ib.-Battle of Fleurus, 143.-Pichegru advances to Brussels, 146.-Views of the Cabinet of Vienna, ib.-The British retire towards Holland, 147.-Decree of the Convention to give no quarter, ib.-Secession of Prussia, 148.-Operations in Piedmont, 149.-Success in the Maritime Alps, 150.-War in the Eastern Pyreenes, ib.-Successes of Dugommier, 151.-Invasion of Spain, 152.-Successes of the Republicans, ib. -Capture of Bellegarde, 153.-Defeat of the Spaniards, ib.-Figueras and Rosas taken, 154.-Invasion of Biscay, ib.-The Spaniards sue for peace, ib.Hostilities in Flanders, 155.-Battle of Ruremonde, ib.-Maestricht taken, 156.-Retreat of the British, ib.-Firmness of Pitt, 157.-Austria and Prussia resolve on peace, ib.-Siege of Nimeguen, ib.-Description of Holland, 159. -Winter campaign of Pichegru, 165.-Dutch sue for peace, ib.-Revolution at Amsterdam, 166.-Dutch fleet captured by the French, 167.--Operations on the Rhine, ib.-The Allies driven across the Rhine, 168.-Campaign in Savoy, ib.-Storming of Thurreau's camps in La Vendée, 169.-Chouan insurrection, and character of Puisaye, 170.-Results of the campaign, ib.-Issues of assignats, 171.—Increase of the French forces, ib.—General reflections, 172. CHAPTER XVII.-WAR IN POLAND. Extent of Poland in former times, 173.-Physical description of it, 174.-Character of the people, and state of society in it, 176.-Its constitution, 180.-The general assemblies of the people, 181.-The Liberum Veto, 183.-Nature of the national force, 184.-Exploits of John Sobieski, 185.-His anticipation of the partition of Poland, 186.-Democratic strife after his death, 187.-Its partition in 1772, ib.-Difference of the Polish and French reforms, 188.-Their last struggle, ib.-Character of Kosciusko, 189.-He defeats the Russians at Raslowice; Warsaw taken by the insurgents, 190.-The Poles in the Russian army disarmed, ib.-Exertions of Kosciusko and his countrymen, ib.Their want of a large regular force, 191.-Kosciusko routed and made prisoner, 192.-Storming of Praga and Warsaw by Suwarroff, 193.-Sensation produced by the fall of Poland, ib.-Real cause of its ruin, 194.-Contrast afforded by the growth of Russia, ib.-Gallant spirit of the exiled Polish bands, 195. -Comparison of Polish with English history, ib.-Retribution on the partitioning powers, ib. CHAPTER XVIII.-CAMPAIGN OF 1795. Peace between France and Russia, 196.-Effects of the successes of France, 197.-State of the empire, Oct. 1794; treaty between Holland and France, ib.-Fresh treaty between Austria and Great Britain, 198.-Efforts of Great Britain to maintain the war; land and sea forces, and supplies, and treaty with Russia, ib.-Arguments against and for the war, ib.-Exhausted state of France, 200.-Naval operations, ib.-War in the Maritime Alps, ib.—Battle of Loano, 202.-War in Spain, 203.-Accession of Spain to the treaty of Bâle, 204.-Pacification of La Vendée, ib.-Expedition to Quiberon, 205.-Seafight at Belleisle, ib.-Defeat of the Quiberon expedition, 208.-Noble conduct and death of Sombreuil and the Royalist prisoners, 210.-Decline of the Royalist cause in the west of France, 211.-War on the Rhine, ib.-Fall of Luxemburg, 212.-Negotiations between Pichegru and the Allies, ib.—Forces of the Austrians on the Rhine, which the Republicans cross, 213.-Measures of Clairfait in defence, ib.-The Republicans driven from before Mannheim, 214.-Capitulation of Mannheim, and Pichegru driven behind the Quiech, 215.-Capture of the Cape of Good Hope, ib.-Results of the campaign, ib. CHAPTER XIX.-FRENCH REPUBLIC-FROM THE FALL OF ROBESPIERRE Effect of mourning on nations, 217.-Transports which the fall of Robespierre occasioned, 218.-Fall of the Committee of Public Salvation, 219.—The Thermidorians, ib.-Death of Fouquier Tinville, 220.-Denunciation of the Jacobin leaders, 221.-Rise of the Jeunesse Dorée, ib.-Trial of the prisoners from Nantes, ib.-Execution of Carrier, 223.-Return to humanity, ib.-Public manners, ib.-Abrogation of the Revolutionary measures, 224.-Impeachment of the Jacobin leaders, 225.-Distress in France, ib.-Revolt, ib.-Defeat of the insurgents, 226.-Humanity of the Thermidorians, ib.-Fate of the Jacobin leaders, 227.-Renewed efforts of the Jacobins, 228.-Insurrection of the 20th May, ib.-Condemnation of Romme and the Jacobin remnant, 231.— Condemnation of Féraud's murderer-disarming of the Faubourg St Antoine, ib.-Difficulty in contracting the assignats, 232.-Scarcity in Paris, 233. -Depreciation in the assignats, ib.-Changes in the laws, 234.-Abolition of the Revolutionary Tribunal, 235.-New constitution, ib.-Reaction in the south of France, ib.-The Duke of Orleans' younger sons, 236.-Death of the Dauphin, and liberation of the Duchess d'Angoulême, 237.-Captivity of Lafayette, ib.-The constitution of the Directory, 238.-Coalition of Royalists with the national guard, 239.-Appointment of Buonaparte, 241: defeat of the sections, 242.-Establishment of military despotism, ib.-Humanity of the Convention, ib.-Election of the Council of Ancients and the Five Hundred, ib.-The history of the Convention, 243.-The history of the Revolution and the causes of its disasters, ib. CHAPTER XX.-RISE OF NAPOLEON, AND CAMPAIGN OF 1796 IN ITALY. Parentage of Napoleon, 246.-His early character, &c., 247.-Enters the army 249. His appearance, 250.-His first services, ib.-His first acquaintance with Junot, ib.-and with Duroc, 251.-Attached to Dumorbion's army, ib.Is arrested and liberated, 252.-His life in Paris, ib.-Commands on the 13th Vendemiaire, 253.-History of Murat, 254.-Napoleon's marriage with Josephine, 255.-Receives the command of the Army of Italy, 256.-Description of Italy, ib.-Interest of Rome, 261.-Character of the people, 265.—The Plain of Lombardy, ib.-State of the French army, 266.-Its officers: Berthier, 267-Massena, 268-Augereau, ib.-Serrurier, 269.-State of the allied forces, 270.-Napoleon's proclamation and plan of the campaign, ib.-Battle of Montenotte, ib.-Action at Millesimo, 272-and at Dego, ib.-Early history of Lannes, ib.-Actions of Serrurier with Colli, 273.-Consternation of the court, ib.-Armistice, 275.-Treaty of peace, ib.-Designs of Napoleon, 276.Action at Fombio, 277.-Capitulation of the Grand-duke of Parma commencement of the spoliation of works of art, ib.-Passage of the bridge of Lodi, 278.-Napoleon enters Milan, 279.-French contributions, 280.-The Direc tory order Napoleon to march to Rome, 281.-Insurrection at Pavia, 282. Storm and sack of that city, ib.-Napoleon enters the Venetian territory, 283.-Debates in the Venetian Senate, ib.-Perfidy of Napoleon, 284.-Massena enters Verona, ib.-Blockade of Mantua, 285.-Castle of Milan taken; Genoese fiefs subdued; Napoleon enters Modena and Bologna, 286.-Submission of the Pope, and measures against Genoa, ib.-Seizure of Leghorn, 287. -Massacre at Lugo, ib.-Napoleon's measures to bring on a rupture with Venice, ib.-Efforts for the relief of Mantua, 288.-The theatre of war, ib.Positions of the French, and Austrian plan of attack, 289.-Peril of Napoleon, ib.-Battle of Lonato, 290.-Augereau at Castiglione, 291.-Battle of Medola, 292.-Blockade of Mantua resumed; the Polish legion, 293.-Wurmser again advances, 294.-Defeat of Davidovich near Calliano, ib.-Action near Primolano, 295.-Wurmser defeated near Bassano, ib.-He throws himself into Mantua, 296.-History of Marmont, note, ib.-Alvinzi again advances, 298.-Defeat of Vaubois, ib.-Napoleon defeated at Caldiero, 299.-His new designs, 300.-Battle of Arcola, 301.-Operations of Davidovich, 303.-Efforts of the Austrians, ib.-Mission of Clarke to negotiate, 304.-Distress of Mantua, ib. -Battle of Rivoli, 306.-Surrender of Provera, 308.--History of Victor, note. ib.-Spirit in the Austrian dominions, 309.-Surrender of Mantua, ib.— Treaty of Tolentino, 310.-Views of the Directory in this treaty, ib.-Retrospect of the campaign, ib Composition of the French army, 311.—Great genius of Napoleon, 312.-Cause of the disasters of the Austrians, ib.-State of the Italians, 313.-Tenacity of the Austrians, ib. CHAPTER XXI.-CAMPAIGN OF 1796 IN GERMANY. Difficulties of the French government, 314.-Alliance of Great Britain, Russia, and Austria, 315.-Division of opinion in England on the war, ib.-Violence of parties, ib.-Attempt to assassinate the king, ib.-Arguments on the war, 316.-Supplies voted, 317.-Bills against public meetings, ib.—The Opposition withdraw, 318.-Proposals for peace, 319.-Operations of Hoche in La Vendée his character, ib.-Successes of Charette and Stofflet: death of the latter, 321.-Conduct of Charette, ib.-He is taken prisoner, 322.-His death and character, ib.-Termination of the war, 323.-The Archduke Charles put at the head of the army in Germany, ib.-Forces on the Rhine, 324.-Plans of the Austrians, ib.—of the Republicans, 325.-History of Kleber, note, ib.-of Soult, note, ib.-They cross the Lower Rhine, ib.-Are driven back, 326.-History of Moreau, 327--of Desaix, note, 328-of St Cyr, note, ib. -Passage of the Rhine by Moreau, 329.-Actions on the Murg, 330.-The Archduke retires through the Black Forest, 332.-Operations on the Lower Rhine, ib.-Plan of the campaign by the Directory, ib.-Plan of the Archduke, 333.-Action at Neresheim, 334.-Jourdan advances into Franconia, ib.The Archduke defeats Jourdan at Amberg, 335.-History of Ney, note, ib. -Jourdan again routed, 336.-Retreat of Jourdan, ib.-The Archduke again defeats him, 337.-History of Marceau, note, ib.-Struggle of Latour with Moreau, 338.-Moreau retreats, 339-and defeats Latour at Biberach, 340.Retires through the Black Forest, ib.-Battle of Emmendingen, ib.-Moreau driven across the Rhine, 341.-The Austrians refuse an armistice, ib.-Siege of Kehl, ib.-Fall of the tête-de-pont at Huningen, 342.-Reflections on this campaign, ib.-Contributions levied in Germany, 343.-Spirit of the Austrian people, ib.-Convention between France and Prussia, ib.-Naval operations 344.-Successes of the English, 345.-State of St Domingo, ib.-Treaty of St Ildefonso, 346.--Overture for a general peace by Great Britain, 347.-State of Ireland, 348.-Designs of the Directory, 349.-Preparations of the British government, 350.-The expedition is dispersed by tempests, ib.-Death and character of the Empress Catherine, 351.-Retirement of Washington: his character, 352. HISTORY OF EUROPE. CHAPTER XIV. REIGN OF TERROR: FROM THE FALL OF THE GIRONDISTS TO THE DEATH OF DANTON.-JUNE 2, 1793—MARCH 31, 1794. for the securing of their authority. Measures dictated by the dread of individuals become unnecessary when they have perished; those levelled against the influence of classes require to be pursued till the class itself is destroyed. 2. It was not a mere thirst for blood which made Marat and Robespierre declare and act upon the principle, that there could be no security for the Republic till two hundred and sixty thousand heads had fallen. Hardly any men are cruel for cruelty's sake; the leaders of the Jacobins were not more so than the reckless and ambitious of any other country would be, if exposed to the influence of similar passions. Ambition is the origin of desperate measures, because it renders men sensible only of the dictates of an insatiable passion: terror is the most common source of cruelty. Men esteem the lives of others lightly when their own are at stake. The revolutionary innovations being 1. "THE rule of a mob," says Aristotle, "is the worst of tyrannies;" ;"* and so experience has proved it, from the caprice of the Athenian democracy to the proscriptions of the French Revolution. The reason is one which always holds, and must remain unaltered while society remains. In contests for power, a monarch has, in general, to dread only the efforts of a rival for the throne; an aristocracy, the ascendancy of a faction in the nobility; the populace, the vengeance of all the superior classes in the state. Hence, the safety of the first is usually secured by the destruction of a single rival and his immediate adherents; the jealousy of the second extinguished by the proscription or exile of a limited number of families; but the terrors of the last require the destruction of whole ranks in society. They constantly feel that, if they do not destroy the superior classes in the state, they will, in the long run, fall again under their influence, and their leaders in consequence be sub-directed against the whole aristocratic jected to punishment. Hence the envenomed and relentless animosity by which they are actuated towards them. Similar feelings are not experienced in nearly the same degree by the holders of property on the resumption of power, because they are not felt to be necessary * “ Τούτων των τυραννίδων τελευταια ή δημο xgaria."-ARISTOTLE, De Politica. VOL. IIL and influential classes, their vengeance was felt to be implacable, and no security could be expected to the democratic leaders, till their whole opponents were destroyed. Thence the incessant, and often ridiculous, dread of a counter revolutionary movement, which was evinced by the democratic party, and which so often impelled them into the A no hand in producing it. The insur- most sanguinary measures, when there | taneous; the result of a universal mowas in reality no danger to be appre-ral conviction; and the Mountain, itself hended.* In the strife of contending feeble and irresolute, showed that it had classes, the sphere of individual vengeance was fearfully augmented. Not one, but fifty leaders had terrors to allay, rivals to extinguish, hatred to gratify. Amidst the contests for influence, and the dread of revenge, every man sacrificed his individual to his political connexions: private friendship, public character, yielded to the force of personal apprehension, or the vehemence of individual ambition. A forced coalition, between the most dissimilar cha-mittees, and spend our nights in framracters, took place from the pressure of similar danger; friends gave up friends to the vengeance of political adversaries; individual security, private revenge, were purchased by the sacrifice of ancient attachment. 3. France experienced the truth of these principles with unmitigated severity during the later stages of the Revolution. But it was not immediately that the leaders of the victorious faction ventured upon the practical application of their principles. The first feeling with the multitude, on the overthrow of the Girondists, was exultation at the victory they had gained, and unbounded anticipations of felicity from the assumption of power by the most popular and vehement of their demagogues. The most extravagant joy prevailed among the Jacobins at their decisive triumph. "The people," said Robespierre, "have by their conduct confounded all their opponents. Eighty thousand men have been under arms nearly a week, and not one shop has been pillaged, not one drop of blood shed. They have proved by that whether the accusation was well founded, that they wished to profit by the disorders to commit murder and pillage. Their insurrection was spon * So true are the words of Metastasio- Ciro, Act ii. scene 3. ing good laws." Under such plausible colours did the Revolutionists veil a movement which destroyed the only remnants of virtue in the democracy, and delivered over France in fetters to the Reign of Terror. 4. The aspect of the Convention, after this great event, was entirely changed from what it had ever been before. Terror had mastered its resistance; proscription had thinned its ranks. The hall was generally silent. The right, and the majority of the centre, never voted, but seemed, by their withdrawal from any active part, to condemn the whole proceedings of the Jacobins, and await intelligence from the provinces as the signal for action. The debates of the legislature, as they appear in the Moniteur, suddenly contract into nothing. All the decrees proposed by the ruling party were adopted in silence without any discussion. By a decree of the Convention, the whole power of government was vested in the hands of the Decemvirs till the conclusion of a general peace. They made no concealment of the despotic nature of the authority with which they were thus invested. "You have nothing now to dread," said St Just, "from the enemies of freedom; all we have to do is to make its friends triumphant, and that must be done at all hazards. the critical situation of the Republic, it is in vain to re-establish the constitution it would offer impunity to every attack on liberty, by wanting the force to repress such. You are too far removed from conspiracies to In |