CHAP. VIII. ations. Many are to be found in Rajpootana, espe

at Benares:

4

cially on Mount Abú; but perhaps the most celebrated are those which have been built on the holy mountain of Satruniya in the Guzerat peninsula, over against the city of Palitana. The Brahmans expelled the Buddhists, but they could not wholly expel the Jains; and to this day the Jains form an interesting element in the Hindú population, especially in western India.

Triumph of Siva The overthrow of Buddhism at Sárnáth must Lowara. phallic form of have sent a thrill through the religious world of India. From time immemorial Benares had been the great centre of religious thought; the resort of all new teachers who aspired to be the founders of sects; the final court of appeal from all conflicting schools, such as those of Mithila, Gour, and Dravira. The destruction at Sárnáth was the triumph of the worshippers of Siva. This deity, the Dionysos of the Greeks, was perhaps the most ancient and most mystic in the Brahmanical pantheon.

Iswara or Siva was the first cause, the

The holy mountain of Satruniya in the south-east of Kattiawar is sacred to Adinath, the first of the twenty-four Tirthankaras, who is said to have emigrated from Ayodhya at some remote period. On the summit of the mountain is a colossal image of Adináth, hewn out of the solid rock. The mountain itself rises nearly two thousand feet above the plains. Upon these lonely heights the marble shrines of the Jains, with their stately enclosures, half-palace, half-fortress, have been constructed in the upper air, far removed from the ordinary tread of mortals, like the mansions of another world. In the dark recesses of each temple there is one or more images of Adináth, or some other Tirthankara. The alabaster features, wearing an expression of listless repose, are rendered dimly visible by the faint light which is shed by silver lamps. The air is perfumed with incense, and the female votaries, glittering in scarlet and gold, move round in circles barefooted over the polished floors, chaunting their monotonous but not unmelodious hymns. The mountain is one of the first places of Jain pilgrimage; the bridal hall of those who would marry everlasting rest. Many legends are told of fabled kings, who by their austerities and religious services on this sacred ground have thrown off the intolerable load of sin, and attained the blessing of liberation.-Forbes's Ras Mala, vol. i., chap. iii.

germ of all things. The linga was the symbol of CHAP. VIII. Siva, and the representative of the supreme being. There was a corresponding symbol of the female sex. These two symbols were the material forms of that creative force, or supreme spirit, which was involved in the conception of Brahma. In the work of creation Iswara, or the germ, expanded into an egg, and evolved within itself the five elements,— earth, water, air, fire, and ether. The egg then separated into two parts, a higher and a lower. The higher portion became the heaven above; the lower portion became the earth beneath. It subsequently formed the universe of all created being; of gods, men, and animals; of mountains, plains, rivers, and seas. When it reached its full expansion it began slowly to diminish. The number of deaths exceeded the number of births. In this way it was gradually reduced to a single germ, which might be symbolized as a dew drop, but might be more exactly described as the centre point of the circle. Thus universe after universe was created and passed away, after a similar fashion to that already indicated in the myth of a day and night of Brahma.

Siva and Durga.

Ultimately these symbols were personified into a Conception of god and goddess; or rather a god and goddess were associated with the symbols. The worship of the male deity exhibited every stage of development. Sometimes it found expression in a pure and elevated adoration of the supreme being as Iswara, in which the worshipper sought to render his body and soul pure and holy in the sight of the creator. Sometimes it degenerated into a wretched asceticism, which

5 Faria y Sousa, vol. ii., page 377.

CHAP. VIII. cultivated a distaste for existence by pondering over the lower instincts and necessities of animal being, and quenched the fire of the passions by a depraved familiarity with the ashes and bones of the dead, and every species of filth and corruption. The worship of the female deity exhibited a similar variety of phases. Sometimes under the names of Durgá, Bhávani, or Párvati, she was adored as the divine ideal of the daughter, wife, or mother. Sometimes, as Bhadrá-Kálí, she was regarded as the patron deity of Thugs and prostitutes. She was also personified as Kálí, the black goddess, the terrible barbarian queen, who revelled in strong wine and flesh meat, in disgusting obscenity, and the blood of human sacrifices. The grosser forms of the worship of Siva and Durgá degenerated into the so-called Tantric religion, which once prevailed throughout a large portion of India, but which there is reason to believe has nearly disappeared from the land. In the Siva cult novices were exposed to every possible allurement, and expected to remain unmoved. In the Kálí cult nudity was worshipped in Bacchanalian orgies which cannot be described.

Sankha Achárya, the apostle of Siva, about A.D. 900,

The triumph of Siva over Buddha is to some extent illustrated by the life and career of Sankha Acharya, who may be termed the apostle of the Saiva religion in its more spiritual form. He was a native of Malabar, and belonged to the tribe of Nambúri Brahmans. He flourished about the eighth or ninth century of the Christian era. He led the life of a wandering mendicant, and engaged in successful controversies with the Buddhists and Jains. According to local legend, Jain kings were reigning at Kalyan in the Dekhan, and Conjeveram

in the Peninsula, who blasphemed the gods of CHAP. VIII. the Brahmans and endeavoured to subvert the Brahmanical faith. Accordingly Siva became incarnate as Sankha Achárya, in order to abolish the Jain religion and regulate and reform the Bráhmans. His sect is known as the Smárta, and largely prevails throughout the Peninsula. Its members are distinguished by three horizontal white stripes along their foreheads. Some are called Lingayets; their sect is known as the Jangam. They carry little images of the linga, as the representative of the supreme being, in small silver boxes hanging from the arm. They bury their dead without burning. They live only on rice, vegetables, and cakes of various grains; and entirely abstain from flesh meat and

wine.

a

The revival of the worship of Vishnu, the Herakles of the Greeks, seems to have commenced at later date. Its followers were known as Vaishnavas in opposition to the Saivas or followers of Siva. Its chief apostles were Rámánuja Acharya who flour

A variety of authorities might be quoted for the statements in the text, including Faria y Sousa, Abbé Dubois, Buchanan, Wilks, and the Mackenzie MSS., of which the author has a large folio volume of extracts and abstracts, compiled by himself more than ten years ago. The vitality of the Smarta religion is proved by the fact that the great Guru Sankha Achárya has been succeeded down to the present day by a line of Gurus, who have been either adopted by the preceding Guru whilst alive, or elected by the disciples after his decease. A successor or representative of the apostle was still living in 1871. His name was Narsingh Acharya. He is called by his disciples the Jagat Guru, or teacher of the world. He is the venerated pontiff of all Hindús holding the Smarta faith. He is a celibate, lives on milk, and is acquainted with Sanskrit, Kanarese, Tamil, and Telugu. He wears a tiara covered with pearls and jewels. In 1871 he was seventy-five years of age, and had adopted a successor. He travels in great state in a special palanquin with an elephant in attendance; and on such occasions is accompanied by a large cortége of Bráhmans and disciples. All the Hindú inhabitants of a town, the Raja not excepted, turn out on his approach to receive him with suitable reverence.-Bowring's Eastern Experiences, page 139. London, 1872.

CHAP. VIII. ished at Conjeveram,' and Rámánand who flourished at Benares. Rámánuja may be referred to the twelfth century. He distinguished himself as the opponent of both Jains and Saivas; and was especially famous for casting out evil spirits and devils. Like Sankha Achárya, he appears to have undertaken missionary circuits over the whole of the Peninsula, fixing his head-quarters at Sriringham, opposite the town of Trichinopoly. His particular sect is known as the Ayengar Vaishnavas, and is distinguished from the Smárta by a vertical mark like a trident, which is painted on the forehead just above the nose. They abhor Siva, and call him the chief of the Rákshasas, and worship only the Vishnu group of deities. Rámánand of Benares was a disciple who had seceded from Rámánuja. He taught the worship of Vishnu through his incarnations as Ráma and Krishna; and especially sought to abolish caste. But before indicating the various phases in the religion of Vishnu, it will be necessary to glance at the origin and growth of the conception of that deity.

Conception of
Vishnu and

Lakshmi.

Vishnu was originally a personification of the Sun-god as a human hero more or less divine; the celestial ancestor of the Surya-vansa, or "children of the sun." This idea developed into that of deity; the bright god who imparted life and light to the universe; the supreme soul that illuminated the

7 Conjeveram, properly Kanchipura, or the golden city, was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Chola. It is situated about forty-eight miles to the southwest of Madras.

8 The sectarian mark of the Vaishnavas is called the foot of Vishnu, which is represented by the trident. The sectarian of the Saivas is called the eye of Siva, and is generally in the centre of the forehead, in the middle of the three lincs. Siva is fabled to have a third eye there.