caste in the curiosity, but they disclosed little of the thoughts CHAPTER IV. and aspirations of the general population. One important fact may be elicited, that in the Punjab, or at any rate in the countries traversed by Alexander, there was as yet no appearance of caste dis- Absence of tinctions. This is proved by the absence of all Punjab, allusions to caste in the history of Alexander's expedition. It is morcover confirmed by the absence of all similar allusions in the older and more authentic hymns of the Rig-Veda. Had the institution. existed, it could scarcely have failed to have attracted the attention of the Greeks; especially as they were eagerly searching for all resemblances between Egypt and India, and would naturally have been struck by such a remarkable similarity in the caste systems of the respective countries. riage customs. The absence of such distinctions in the Punjab Variety of mar may be further inferred from the description of the marriage customs, as furnished by the Greeks who accompanied Alexander. According to the strict law, which, as will presently be seen, already prevailed amongst the people of Hindustan, no member of any caste, or hereditary trade or profession, could marry out of his own class." Yet the marriage customs of the Punjab involved ideas altogether foreign to this law, although not foreign to the difference of tribes. Thus in some tribes virgins were offered as marriage prizes in boxing, wrestling, running, and. archery; and the winners chose their own brides, but married them without portions.18 In other tribes. a wife was to be bought for a pair of kine,19 but a 17 Megasthenes in Strabo, India, sect. 49. 19 Nearchos in Strabo, India, sect. 66. Arrian, India, c. xvii. This custom may be referred to the ancient Swayamvara. See ante, p. 24. 19 This was the old marriage custom, which prevailed amongst the Vedic Rishis. See ante, p. 23. CHAPTER IV. man might marry as many women as he could maintain. But a custom prevailed in the city of Taxila which plainly indicates that caste, in the modern Brahmanical sense of the word, was unknown. Whenever parents were so poor that they could not procure husbands for their daughters, they exposed the damsels at a marriageable age for public sale in the bazaar or market-place. A crowd of men was collected by the blowing of shell trumpets and beating of drums. The necks and shoulders of the young women were then uncovered; and when a young man was pleased with a damsel, he married her upon such terms as might be agreed upon.20 Two tribes described by the Greeks. The Brahmans. Two important classes or tribes, however, are described by the Greeks who accompanied Alexander, who were evidently regarded as superior races; and each class had its own characteristics, which may have subsequently hardened them into castes. These were the wise men, or Bráhmans, who were also called sophists and philosophers; and the Kathæi, who may have been the ancient Kshatriyas. The Brahmans or philosophers followed a variety of pursuits. Some were engaged in public affairs, and attended the Raja as counsellors. Others practised religious austerities by remaining in one posi 20 Aristobulus in Strabo, India, sect. 54, 62. The disposal of maidens by public sale was an old Babylonian custom. It is described by Herodotus, who considered it to be the wisest marriage custom with which he was acquainted. The maidens were put up to public auction. The handsome ones were sold off first, and would fetch high prices from the rich Babylonians. The plainer maidens were helped off by dowries which were provided out of the proceeds. Thus when a hand-ome maiden was put up, the rich strove who would give the highest price. When a plain damsel was put up, the poor strove who would take her with the smallest dowry. Thus the handsome girls helped the plainer ones to husbands. Herodo. tus, i. 196. tion for days, and exposing themselves to the blazing CHAPTER IV. sun. Others imparted religious instruction to their respective disciples. Others pursued the study of nature; theoretically perhaps by the contemplative process already indicated, but practically they displayed their knowledge by prognostications respecting rain, drought, and diseases. When not otherwise occupied they repaired to the bazaar or marketplace. They were held in great honour as public advisers; and were permitted to take what they pleased from the shops, such as honey, sesamum, figs, and grapes. They went about in a state of nudity, but every house was open to them, even to the women's apartments; and wherever they went they shared in the conversation, and partook of what food was present. Two of them came to the table of Alexander, and took their meal standing; a circumstance which would alone seem to prove the absence of caste ideas amongst the Punjab Bráhmans. When they had finished they retired to a neighbouring spot, and commenced their religious austerities exposed to the sun and rain. These Punjab Bráhmans are said to have regarded disease as a disgrace, and it is added that those who feared its approach burnt themselves alive.21 Alexander. Alexander was himself much interested in the Curiosity of Bráhmans at Taxila. Neither he nor his Macedonian followers were religious inquirers in the modern sense of the word. The worship of the gods was still maintained in Greece at festivals and sacrifices, and there still existed a strong popular 21 This was not the case with all the Brahmans; but these Greek accounts will be brought under more detailed review hereafter. Strabo, India, sect. 61, 65. CHAPTER IV. belief in oracles; but the fervid interest and deep religious awe with which Herodotus had gazed on the deities and mysteries of Egypt, were neither felt nor expressed by the men whose intellects had been trained in the political struggles which had long distracted Hellas. To them the gods of India were merely Dionysos and Herakles, the popular gods of their own country; 22 and the religious worship of the people was apparently regarded with a condescending curiosity which bordered on contempt. But from the first the Bráhmans had attracted the attention of Alexander. He had been struck by their fortitude and resolution in voluntarily subjecting themselves to severe austerities and penances; and he was curious to know something of the dogmas which led to such results. Accordingly he sent for them to come to him, but was told that if he wanted to hear their discourse he must come to them. So he sent Onesikritos to converse with them.23 Interview be tween Onesikritos and the Brálimans. The interview which ensued must have been a strange one, but only those perhaps who are familiar with India can realize it in all its significance. A green jungle between two and three miles from the city. A group of fifteen naked Bráhmans; some standing on one leg, and holding a log of wood above their heads with both hands; others lying or sitting on the bare stones. All exposed to the pitiless glare of an Indian sun, which alone would account for much of their religious mania. A 22 Mention is also made of Zeus the rainy, who of course was the Indra of the Rig-Veda; and the Hindús are also said to have worshipped the Ganges. Strabo, India, sect. 69. 23 Strabo, India, sect. 63 et seq. mixed crowd of disciples and wondering worship- CHAPTER IV. pers doubtless stood around. The European visitor approached in Greek costume, accompanied by his interpreters; and all present were doubtless eager to hear what words would pass between the stranger and the holy men.24 Kalanos the Onesikritos appears to have been rather too Arrogance of anxious to propitiate. Moreover the natural arro- Brahman. gance of Kalanos, the Bráhman whom he addressed, was stimulated by such conciliatory language, and possibly by the presence of an admiring auditory. The Greek commenced by saying that the great king Alexander, who was himself a deity, had heard of the wisdom of Kalanos, and desired to be informed of the nature of his teaching. Kalanos was lying naked on the stones, and replied in the language of oriental insolence :-"Your clothing is contrary to nature and offensive to deity: By such pride and luxury, want and misery have been brought upon mankind: In former days grain was as abundant as the dust, and milk and honey, wine and oil, flowed as freely as water: But the deity grew angry at the luxury of the human race, and withdrew the abundance; and if such luxury continues, famine and drought will follow: If therefore you would learn wisdom, you must return to a state of nature, and lie down upon these stones." 25 Mandanis. The polite Greek must have been somewhat Behaviour of startled by this extraordinary demand from a naked philosopher. Fortunately a Bráhman, named Mandanis, interposed, and rebuked Kalanos for his insolence to a foreigner. "For my part," said 24 Strabo, India, sect. 63 et seq. 25 Strabo, India, sect. 64. |