1. Turkey in Asia comprises the western portion of that continent. It is irregular in outline, and much of its surface is mountainous. From the parallel ranges of Taurus and Anti-Taurus, radiate nearly all the mountain systems which spread over the wide region of Asia Minor, and convert it into a series of "elevated plateaux, deep valleys, and enclosed plains." The Lebanon chain runs parallel to the coast of Syria, and terminates near the Red Sea in the famous Mount Sinai, Asia Minor, Armenia, and Kurdistan, are mountainous throughout, Mesopotamia and Babylonia consist of level plains, Syria, Palestine, and the Turkish part of Arabia-the Hedjaz-may be described as hills and mountains bordering the sea. Mount Ararat (16,969 ft.) is the greatest elevation, but Mounts Lebanon and Hermon are each about 10,000 feet.

2. The Tigris, Euphrates, and Orontes, are the most important of the rivers of Turkish Asia, but numerous others intersect nearly every portion of it. The two former flow into the Persian Gulf, the latter into the Levant Sea. The Kizil Irmak, the Yeshil Irmak, and the Sakaria, all large rivers, empty their waters into the Black Sea. The Jordan is, of course, the most celebrated of the rivers of Palestine. After having stimulated into fertility the arid valley through which it flows, it loses itself in the Dead Sea.

3. The lakes of the region are numerous and interesting. Lake Van, in Armenia, has a length of eighty miles, and lies in a hollow some 5,000 feet above the level of the sea. It is quite salt, and though it has no outlet its waters are bright and clear. Fish abound in it, and great flocks of water-fowl frequent its shores, attracted by the abundance of food and the mild climate. Tuz Göl is another large salt lake of Asia Minor; but the Sea of Galilee, or Tiberias, thirteen miles long and 653 feet above the level of the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea, 1 292 feet below the same sea, are the most remarkable

of these curious sheets of water. The Dead Sea is fortysix miles long, and is the deepest lake basin in the world. Its lofty shores are unbroken by a single outlet, the waters being kept down by evaporation. The waters are so intensely salt, and therefore dense, that the body will not sink in it, and owing to the bitumen springs in and about it they are extremely nauseous to the taste and smell. Along its shores desolation and barrenness prevail. No cultivation is seen-nothing but sulphur, rock-salt, lava, and pumice-hence the fitting name of Bahr Lût, or Dead Sea, which from time immemorial it has obtained from the inhabitants of the surrounding region.

4. Blessed with a good climate and a fertile soil, nearly every vegetable product should flourish in Turkish Asia. But to achieve this desirable result the country must be properly cultivated, and full advantage must be taken of the facilities for irrigation, by storing the surplus rainfall against dry seasons; for, in spite of the many springs and lakes, the region in question is but ill supplied with water, and a long-continued drought will often turn the valleys of the Tigris, Euphrates, or Jordan, and other river valleys, into the condition of sandy deserts.

5. In ancient times the foresight of the cultivators provided against these contingencies by irrigating canals. But since the Turkish military despotism has overshadowed the country, nothing has been done to extend these, or even to keep the old ones in repair. Hence vast portions of the country which could support a flourishing population are now barren, or, worse still, malarious marshes, which exhale pestilence and render their vicinity dangerous for several months in the year.

6. The mountainous plateau, and especially the eastern part of it, has a severe winter. Snow lies for several months in the year, and the higher peaks are capped with perpetual white. More westerly the average temperature is higher and the vegetation is of a more sub-tropical type, though the variations between summer and winter are still extreme.

7. "The valleys and plains in the whole of this high

region are generally very fertile, producing fruits in abundance, the olive, mulberry, and other trees, and the vine. The northern slopes facing the Black Sea are humid, enjoying more or less rain all through the year. They are covered with forests of ash, elm, poplar, larch, beech, box, and pine, or are cultivated wherever a level patch of ground is to be found. The valleys which open out into the Ægean Sea are exceedingly fertile, and have a genial climate; the summers are hot, but severe cold is occasionally felt when the winds blow down from the plateau through the valleys. The rains on the southern slopes facing the Mediterranean fall only in winter and spring, and this coast during great part of the year is excessively hot; the hills are covered with virgin forests, and the coast plains at the eastern end produce oranges, lemons, grapes, cotton, corn, and an endless variety of flowers. The slopes from this mountain region that face the Mesopotamian plain have a less rigorous climate; the summers are, however, hot and sultry, and violent storms of wind and snow frequently sweep down from the plateau. The great plains are scorched and bare in summer, but the winters are mild and salubrious. Over the greater part of the desert, which is broken up by oases, there are many pools of rain-water, even although there are no streams, and pasturage for camels and sheep is found over large areas. Along the Syrian shores of the Mediterranean the winters are mild and the summers oppressive. Along the higher slopes, especially in the Lebanon, where some of the hills rise above the snow line, the winters are bracing and the summers mild and balmy. There are two rainy seasons, the former and the latter rains.' On the Red Sea coast the Tehamal or coast plain is hot, dry, and barren except towards the south, where it is reached by the summer rains, and affords good pasturage. The Jebel, or mountain region, is cooler and well watered, producing abundant vegetation.”*

8. The chief vegetable productions of this yet undeveloped country are wheat, barley, maize, rice, rye, and

*Keith Johnston.