2. Whenever the attention is drawn to the completion of an act, the question of time refers not to the entire act, but to the end of it. If the completion takes place in a portion of time which the speaker assumes as present, however long that portion may be, or however remote the time of the completion may be from the moment of speaking, the tense is the present perfect; as, "I have written a letter this year." The letter might have been finished on the first of January, but the mention of it might have been made on the last of the following December. But should one moment intervene between the portion assumed as present (one year in the above example) and that in which the act took place, the past must be used if we simply refer to the act, or the past perfect if we refer to the completion of the act.

3. This tense, like the present, is used for other tenses; as, "Shakspeare has excelled all other dramatists." "When I have finished my task, I shall return."

103. Past Tense.

1. The past tense represents what took place in time wholly past; as, "I saw," "I was seeing;" "I was seen.”

2. The past and the present perfect may both refer to one and the same act. If the speaker refers to an act indefinitely, that is, without regard to its progress or completion, and places it in the past, beyond any portion of what he assumes as present, he must use the past tense; as, "I wrote this forenoon;" the afternoon being assumed as present. "I have written (the same act) to-day;" the whole day being assumed as present, and the completion (however it may have been with the beginning), has taken place in that present.

3. The past tense, common form (109, 1), often refers to an act indefinitely. It denotes, like the present, what was customary; as, “He attended school constantly." But in the progressive form it denotes a definite act in past time, but not completed; as, "He was writing when I came."

104. Past Perfect Tense.

1. The past perfect represents a past event completed in time wholly past; as, "I had seen;""I had been seeing;" "I had been seen."

2. The present perfect, the past, and the past perfect may each refer to the same act. Suppose a person to write a letter on Monday; he

The present perfect distinguished from the past and past perfect. Present perfect for other tenses. Past tense. Past compared with present perfect. Common and progressive forms of the past tense. Past perfect tense.

speaks of it on Wednesday, assuming Wednesday alone as the present. He says (referring to the act absolutely and indefinitely), “I wrote a letter." But while he was writing the mail arrived; he now says (referring definitely and relatively to the act unfinished, but in progress), "I was writing a letter when the mail arrived." Again: in speaking of the same act, he says (referring definitely and relatively to the completion of the act), “I had written a letter before the mail left;" or he may say (referring definitely and relatively both to the progress and completion of the act), "I had been writing a letter." These forms are used, first, because the time was wholly past, including no part of Wednesday; secondly, because an indefinite absolute act in past time requires the simple past, wrote; a definite relative and progressive act in past time requires the past progressive form, was writing; while a completed relative act in past time requires the past perfect, had written, and a completed progressive past act requires the past perfect progressive, had been writing. Now, let the speaker assume, not Wednesday (though that be the day of speaking, as before), but the whole week, as the present; he cannot say, "I am writing," for the act is not going on; he cannot say, "I wrote," for the act is included in the time assigned as present, i. e., the time is not wholly past. But he can say (referring to the completion of the act in the assumed present), "I have written a letter" (this week); or (referring both to the progress and completion of the act. "I have been writing a letter" (this week). These forms are used, first, because the time (one week) is not wholly past, and secondly, because the nature of the act, as before, requires them.

REMARK.-In drilling pupils on tense, it is important, first, to give a clear idea of what is assumed as present. It is not always expressed as above (Wednesday, a week), but is more frequently assumed without notice, merely implied; as, "He has written." In the second place, the nature or state of the act as indefinite, progressive, completed, or progressive completed, should be fully exhibited.

105. Future Tense.

1. The future tense represents what will take place in future "I shall see." "I shall be seeing." "I shall be seen.”

time; as,

2. The future, like the simple present or past, is used to denote a future custom; as, "Ephraim shall not envy Judah, and Judah shall not vex Ephraim." "The lion shall eat straw like the ox."

106. Future Perfect Tense.

The future perfect tense represents an event as completed in

The proper use of the present perfect, past, and past perfect. Future tense. Future perfect tense.

future time; as, "I shall have seen.' "I shall have been seen."

." "I shall have been seeing."

107. Tenses in all the Modes.

1. The subjunctive mode has six tenses—the same as the indicative.

2. The potential mode has four tenses-the present, the present perfect, past, and past perfect.

3. The infinitive has two tenses-the present and perfect.

4. The imperative has only one tense-the present.

5. Tense, in the subjunctive mode, does not usually mark time with the same exactness as in the indicative. Thus,

(a.) In conditional clauses, if the thing spoken of denote something actual or taken as actual, the tense form usually denotes the true time; as, "If it rained, I did not know it." But if it refers to something merely hypothetical or supposed, the past tense represents present time, and the past perfect, past time; as, "If I were going now (but I cannot), I should ride." "If I had had an opportunity yesterday (but I had none), I should have spoken to him."

(b.) The verb to be has a distinct form for the past tense used hypothetically, and denoting present time; as, "If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes."

(c.) Were in this use cannot stand for would be, or would have been, although in other uses it may; as, "It were an impossibility to raise the requisite sum." Had, in like manner, is used for would, or would have; as, "I had rather be a dog, and bay the moon, than such a Roman." "It had been better for him if he had pursued the opposite course."

6. The tenses in the potential mode have by no means the signification which their names denote.

(a.) The present denotes present possibility, permission, ability, or necessity to perform an act sometimes present, and sometimes future; as, "We may (now) go (to-morrow)." "You can (now) write (now)." "He must (now) leave" (now, to-morrow, next week).

(b.) The present perfect generally denotes a present possibility, necessity, &c., that a past act was performed; as, "I must have written" = It is now

undeniable that I wrote (yesterday).

(c.) The past denotes (1.) a past possibility, &c., to perform an act; as, "Can you write?" "I could write yesterday." "He would often sit the entire evening without uttering a word." Would and might are now seldom, if ever, used to denote past time. (2.) It denotes the present possibility, &c., when followed by a conditional clause; as, “I might or could go (now) if I

Tenses of the subjunctive-potential-infinitive and imperative modes. Time denoted by the tense-forms in the subjunctive-in the potential.

would." "I should or would go (now) if I could." (3.) It denotes a future possibility,, &c,; as, "I shall not go; but if I should go (hereafter), I could (hereafter) walk." (4.) It denotes a universal duty without reference to time; "Children should obey their parents."

as,

(d.) The past perfect denotes usually a past possibility, &c., but by no means a past completed act, as in the indicative, thus; "I could have assisted you (yesterday) if you had desired it": I was able to assist you.

=

7. The infinitive mode has but two tenses, the present and perfect. They denote, the former an indefinite or progressive, and the latter a completed state of the act; as, "To write." "To be writing." "To have written." "To have been writing."

(a.) The infinitive, like the participle, may be connected with any mode or tense of the principal verb.

(b.) The present infinitive denotes a time present with that of the principal verb, and not necessarily present with the speaker; as, "I intend to write." "I intended to write." "I had intended to write." "I shall begin to write."

(c.) The perfect denotes a past act completed at the time denoted by the principal verb; as, "She is said to have sung." "She was thought to have written." "She will be known to have done it."

8. The imperative has only the present tense, which denotes the time of giving a command; the time of its performance is future.

108. Exercise.

1. Tell the TENSES of the following verbs :—

Did you hear the lecture? He listened earnestly. I hope to find the study interesting. It will not rain. Ralph had intended to go. I have heard the Irish orator. We saw the constellation of the Southern Cross. Richard will have learned his lesson by the time we wish to leave. I shall have finished my work when Sarah comes. The child cried. Was the view pleasant? Are the notes of the nightingale sad? Had Anne read the book? The hills were covered with snow.

2. Tell the TENSES of the following verbs; also which denote the RECEPTION of an act, which the PROGRESS, which the COMPLETION of an act, and which an INDEFINITE act:

The paper is published in Boston. Is he planting the seed? Has Frank been drawing? I shall be allowed to go. When will Caroline go to ride? Have they been to the concert? My brother is teaching. Happiness will be her portion. Sorrow is the common lot. Have you been taught to sing? Had his wife heard the good news? I wish to go. I will not be denied. He shall not forget the penalty.

Flowers

Tenses of the infinitive. Time denoted by the infinitive. Time denoted by the imperative.

bloom. Our friends will have gone when you come. Joseph tore the book. What shall I do? William has gained the prize. Have you been to Europe? Fanny has been learning to skate. The clock has struck. Washington was never known to tell a lie. He had been promoted. You do not think so. You will learn to know her better. It shall not be. The general is deceived. Charles has fallen from the tree. He broke his arm. Louisa was carrying the package.

109. Forms of the Verb.

1. Transitive verbs may have four forms-the common, the emphatic, the progressive, and the passive; as, "I love." "I do love." "I am loving." "I am loved."

2. The emphatic form is confined to the present and past indicative, and the present imperative. The other forms are extended through all the modes and tenses.

3. Intransitive verbs may have three forms- -the common, the emphatic, and the progressive; as, "I sit." "I do sit." "I am sitting."

4. The common form represents an act indefinitely, as a custom, or as completed without reference to its progress; as, "I love." "I loved." "I shall love." "I have loved."

5. The variations of this form in the second and third persons, as seen in the terminations est and eth, belong to what is called the solemn style. They are found in the Scriptures, in forms of prayer, and in various sacred books. 6. The emphatic form represents an act with emphasis; as, "I do write." "I did write."

7. This form is used in interrogative or negative sentences without emphasis; as, "Do you write?" "Did you write ?" "I do not write."

as,

8. The progressive form represents the progress of an unfinished act; "I am writing."

9. In the perfect tenses, it represents the completion of a progressive act; as, "I have been writing." "I shall have been writing."

10. The passive form represents the reception of an act; as, “I am loved." "I was loved." "I shall be loved."

11. The perfect tenses of this form are used when we wish to represent the completion of a passive state; as, "I have been honored." "I had been honored." "I shall have been honored."

The following table gives the form for each division of time, with a description of the state of the act :

Forms of transitive verbs. Forms of intransitive verbs. Meaning of the forms.