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the two. When the two compared objects possess the quality in equal degrees, the comparison is expressed by as-as thus; A is as large as B. 8. The superlative degree implies that several (sometimes only two) objects are considered together with respect to a common quality, and that one, or one set exceeds all the others with which it is compared, in respect to that quality; yet when spoken of without comparison, the quality would be in the positive. Thus, in a group of trees, one is tall, but when compared with the rest, it is the tallest of all.

65. Formation of the Comparative and Superlative.

1. The comparative of monosyllables is regularly formed by adding r or er, and the superlative by adding st or est, to the positive; as, wise, wiser, wisest; bold, bolder, boldest.

2. The comparative of most adjectives of more than one syllable is formed by prefixing more or less, and the superlative by prefixing most or least, to the positive; as, industrious, more industrious, most industrious.

3. The following adjectives are compared irregularly: Good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; ill, worse, worst; little, less [or lesser], least; much, more, most; many, more, most; far, farther, farthest, farmost, farthermost; near, nearer, nearest or next; late, later, latest or last; old, older or elder, oldest or eldest.

4. Adjectives terminating in ish indicate the possession of a quality in a lower degree than the positive; as, bluish, approaching in color to blue.

5. The meaning of the positive is also varied by the addition of such adverbs as somewhat, rather, slightly, a little, too, very, greatly, exceedingly, &c.; that of the comparative and superlative by such words as much, far, vastly, altogether, by far, &c.

6. Several adjectives in the superlative degree are formed by adding most to up, upper, nether, in, inner, hind, hinder, out (contracted to ut), outer, further, hither, top, bottom; as, upmost, uppermost, nethermost, &c.

7. Adjectives derived from proper names, numerals, pronominal adjectives, and such as refer to position, material, and form, are seldom, if ever, compared.

8. Many adjectives denoting place or situation, are deficient in some of the degrees; thus, further, furthermost or furthest, hither, hithermost,

Comparatives and superlatives of monosyllables-of words of more than one syllable. Adjectives compared irregularly. Adjectives in ish. The positive varied by adverbs. Adjectives not compared. Deficient comparison.

nether, nethermost, under, undermost, want the positive. Northern, northernmost; rear, rearmost, and others, want the comparative.

66. Exercise.

1. Tell which of the following words are adjectives :—

Ice, cold, soft, water, this, little, chair, knob, arise, brave, diligent, inkstand, lamp, many, former, light, white, match, rough.

2. Tell which of the following adjectives are limiting, and which are qualifying:

Strong, twenty, faithful, green, this, first, an, old, former, yellow, every, such, wonderful, timid, sweet, any, fifth, the, soft, those, pure, ripe, tough.

3. Tell which of the following adjectives are of the positive, which of the comparative, and which of the superlative degree :—

Braver, more acceptable, eldest, less useful, worst, better, most honorable, strongest, sadder, more plentiful, least worthy, last, good. 4. Compare the following adjectives :

Bright, active, handsome, wise, sad, able, just, diligent, beautiful, good, excellent, dutiful, little, serene, fruitful, large, warm, lovely.

5. Apply limiting adjectives to five common nouns; qualifying adjectives in the positive degree to five common nouns, of the masculine gender; qualifying adjectives, in the comparative degree, to five common nouns in the feminine gender; qualifying adjectives, in the superlative degree, to five nouns in the neuter gender, plural number.

67. Models for Parsing.

1. In parsing an adjective,

(1.) Tell what part of speech it is. Why?

(2.) Tell what kind of adjective. Why?

(3.) Compare it, and give the degree (if a qualifying adjective). (4.) Tell to what noun it belongs.

(5.) Give the rule.

2. "The faithful man will be rewarded."

Faithful is an adjective; it is used to limit or qualify a noun; qualifying, -it denotes quality; compared; positive faithful, comparative more faithful, superlative most faithful; in the positive degree, and belongs to man, according to Rule V. "An adjective or a participle must belong to some noun or pronoun."

Models for parsing Adjectives.

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Larger. is an adjective (why?); qualifying (why?); compared; positive large, comparative larger, superlative largest; in the comparative degree; it shows that one of two objects has a higher degree of the quality than the other; and belongs to house, according to Rule V.

4. "She is worthy of the highest praise."

Worthy. is an adjective (why ?); qualifying (why?); compared, worthy, worthier, worthiest; positive degree, and belongs to she. Rule V.

Highest. is an adjective (why?); qualifying (why?); compared; positive high, comparative higher, superlative highest; in the superlative degree; it shows the highest degree of the quality; and belongs to praise, according to Rule V.

The . . . is a definite article (why ?), and as a limiting adjective it belongs to praise, according to Rule V.

5. "Three birds were killed."

Three.. is a numeral adjective (why?); limiting (why?); it belongs to birds, according to Rule V.

6. Give me this apple, and I will give you that."

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is a pronominal adjective, singular number (59, 6), and limits apple, according to Rule V.

That.. is a pronominal adjective; singular number, and is used to limit the noun apple, understood;—or it is used as a noun, instead of apple, in the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case, and is the object of the verb give, according to Rule VIII.

7. "The kingdom of heaven suffereth violence, and the violent take it by force."

Violent. is an adjective; it belongs to persons, understood; or it is used

as a noun, of the third person, plural number, masculine gender, nominative case, and is the subject of the proposition "the violent take," according to Rule I.

3. Point out the ADJECTIVES in the following examples, and parse them according to the above forms:

The passionate are like men standing on their heads; they see all things the wrong way.

Models for parsing Adjectives.

There are two ways of arriving at the highest personal liberty; one is to have few wants, and the other to have abundant means of satisfying them.

Shining characters are not always the most agreeable.

Mental pleasures never cloy; unlike those of the body, they are increased by repetition.

Stone walls do not a prison make,

Nor iron bars a cage.

Minds innocent and quiet take
That for a hermitage.

9. Parse the NOUNS and ADJECTIVES in the following examples :

Rarely in public office,—he (Rufus Choate) was still a public man in the largest sense; all were proud of him. The old honored him, the young loved him, and both old and young admired him.

How sweetly come the holy psalms
From saints and martyrs down,—
The waving of triumphal palms
Above the thorny crown!

The choral praise, the chanted prayers
From harps by angels strung,

The hunted Cameron's mountain airs,

The hymns that Luther sung!- Whittier.

PRONOUNS.

68. Definitions and Distinctions.

A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun; as, "The farmer ploughs his field; he reaps his wheat, and gathers it into his barn."

1. The mere fact that a pronoun is employed instead of a noun, is by no means indicative of its principal use. A noun is used primarily to denote an object, and incidentally, to represent its relation of person, number, gender, or case. A pronoun, on the contrary, is used, primarily, to represent some relation of an object; and to do this, it must, of necessity, represent the object itself.

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2. These relations which the pronoun represents, may be,(a.) That of the object to the speaker; and as the object may be either the

A pronoun. Its primary use. The relation of an object (1.) to the speaker.

speaker himself, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of, there may be three of these relations, called the first, second, and third persons (39, 8. See also Introduction, Lesson XVIII.). Hence, to represent them, we have the pronouns I, thou, and he, she, it; and hence, too, the name personal.

(b.) That of the object to some modifying circumstance; as, "A fortress which stands on a hill is a conspicuous object." Here we employ the pronoun which, incidentally to denote the object fortress, but chiefly to show that the circumstance of its position is what renders it conspicuous. Hence the pronouns who, which, that, and what; and hence, too, the name relative.

(c.) That of an unknown object to the speaker as an inquirer; here, again, the object is incidentally represented by the pronoun (its name being unknown), and that for the special purpose of making it a subject of inquiry. Hence, we have Who? Which? and What? and the name interrogative.

3. The personal pronouns of the third person, and all the relative pronouns, are employed when an object is supposed to be not only known, but previously mentioned. The personal pronouns of the first and second persons, are used when the object is known (by its presence), but not (necessarily) previously mentioned. The interrogative pronouns are used when the object is neither known, nor has been previously mentioned.

4. The noun for which a pronoun stands is called the antecedent; as, "The world in which they are placed, opens with all its wonders upon their eyes." The antecedent may be a phrase or an entire proposition; as, "To believe the report, which is the thing you desire, would be offensive to one of the noblest of men." "The servant opened the window which was strictly forbidden." The term antecedent, however, means something more than the noun which the pronoun represents; it denotes the leading term of a relation, and implies a subsequent term. Hence it is more especially used in case of a relative pronoun, which is employed to show a relation between its antecedent noun, and some following circumstance. (See 2. (b.) above).

5. The object represented by the personal pronouns of the first and second persons, is always supposed to be present, and, consequently, the antecedent noun is seldom given; that of the third person is usually expressed. Sometimes, however, a personal or an interrogative pronoun is employed without an antecedent, and so limited by a relative and its clause, as to give to the whole the effect of a single name; as, “He who sways the minds of men by his eloquence," i. c., the orator, "exerts the highest human power." "Who, that marks the fire still sparkling in each eye, but would deem their bosoms burned anew?" Sometimes the antecedent pronoun, in such cases, is omitted, or included in the relative; as, "Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow," that is, they who. "Who steals my purse steals trash," that is, he who.

(2.) To some circumstance, (3.) to an inquirer. The pronouns used for an object known, mentioned, &c. Antecedent expressed or implied.

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