every independent expression, or phrase, should begin with a capital; as, "Evil communications corrupt good manners." "The words of the prophet."

(a.) When the dependent parts of a complete sentence are made into separate paragraphs, each part should begin with a capital; as, "Nouns are divided into,

Proper, which denote individuals,

Common, which denote classes."

3. RULE III. Proper names, and adjectives derived from proper names, should begin with a capital; as, America, American; Boston, Bostonian.

(a.) When the proper name of a person, place, river, or mountain, has become a consolidated compound word, only one capital should be used; as, Northampton, Southbridge, Newcastle; but when the parts remain separate, each should begin with a capital; as, South Berwick, New York, Old Saybrook. In many compound names usage is not uniform. Thus, Newcastle, used as the name of some thirty different places in England, Ireland, and British America, is consolidated; while in the United States, in some twenty different instances, the parts are separated, thus: New-Castle. The same may be said of New Haven, New Market, and others.

4. RULE IV. Titles of honor, office, respect, and distinction, usually begin with a capital; as, Chief Justice Marshall, His Majesty, General Washington.

(a.) When a title is used with a proper name, merely for the purpose of explanation, it should begin with a small letter; as, The apostle Peter; The prophet Daniel.

5. RULE V. All appellations of the Deity should begin with a capital; as, God, Jehovah, The Eternal, The Almighty.

(a.) The personal pronouns, he, his, him, thou, thy, and thee, when they refer to the Deity, sometimes, especially when emphatic, begin with a capital. This usage is neither universal nor uniform.

6. RULE VI. The first word of every line in poetry should begin with a capital.

7. RULE VII. The words I and O should be capitals.

8. RULE VIII. Any common noun used to denote an object personified, or an object to be made specially emphatic, should begin with a capital; as, "Cheered with the grateful smell, old Ocean smiles"-Milton; "In the Creed the same distinction is properly observed"-Harrison.

Rules for capitals. III., IV., V., VI., VII., VIII.

9. RULE IX. The first word of a direct quotation, so introduced as to form a sentence of itself, should begin with a capital; as, "He saith unto him, Feed my sheep."

30. Exercise.

1. Explain by rule the use of each capital in the following examples : Dr. Kane relates many curious facts respecting the Esquimaux. "Lossing's Field Book of the Revolution" gives an interesting account of the surrender of the British army under General Burgoyne, to General Gates, the American commander. He inquired, For what purpose is this waste?" and I could make no reply. The eye of the Omniscient is ever our guard, and the hand of the Almighty our support. My beauteous deliverer thus uttered her divine instructions: " 'My name is Religion." In the agony of the moment he exclaimed, "O, I am lost." The Austrians were defeated in the battle of Magenta.

"In colleges in ancient days,

There dwelt a sage called Discipline."

2. By the preceding rules, correct the erroneous use of capitals in the follow-` ing examples, and insert them where they should be used:

new york is the largest of all american cities. and i heard, but i understood not; then said i, "o my lord, what shall be the end of these things?" huss, the reformer, was a martyr to the cause which he espoused. have you visited the falls of niagara? The auditor has sent in his report. the english custom differs from ours,

"the lightnings flash along the sky,

The thunder bursts and rolls on high;

jehovah's voice, methinks I hear

amid the storm,

as riding on the clouds of even

he spreads his glory o'er the heaven."

but wisdom is justified of her children.

31. Rules for the division of words into Syllables.

1. RULE I. Every word has as many syllables as there are distinct vowel sounds heard in a correct pronunciation of it; as, near, nev-er.

(a.) When two vowels come together, they unite (12.) in one syllable, if in the pronunciation only one vowel sound, single or combined (12, 2, 3), is

Rule IX. for capitals. Syllabication, Rule I.

heard; as, feast, poorly; otherwise they separate into two syllables; as, li-on, pu-erile, coöperate.

(b.) When the two vowels are the same, the separation is often indicated by a diæresis (·); as, preëmption, coördinate.

2. RULE II. The consonants, singly or combined (13.), are either prefixed or affixed to the vowels (16, 3, b, c, d), which they modify.

(a.) PRIMITIVE WORDS.(1) A single consonant between two vowels is joined to the latter when the former is long (4); as, pa-per, la-dy, ci-pher; otherwise, it should be joined to the former; as, lep-er, ep-ic, ech-o.

NOTE. The combinations, th, ch, tch, ph, gh, sh, ng, wh, should be regarded as single consonants (11, 3), since they represent only one elementary sound, and are never separated when thus used.

(2.) Two consonants between two vowels are separated, except when a mute, and either of the liquids l or r, follow a long vowel; as, cas-ter, dam-per, ap-ple, am-ber; peo-ple, a-cre, tri-fle.

(3.) When three consonants come between two vowels, the last, or the last two-when they are a mute, and either of the liquids 7 or r,—must be joined to the latter; as, emp-ty, am-ple, strug-gle.

(b.) DERIVATIVE words. The prefix should be separated from the radical in all cases, except as in Rule II. (1); and the suffix always when it forms a syllable; as, pre-fix, suf-fix; but pref-ace, not pre-face; good-ness, tru-ly. (c.) COMPOUND words. Compound words are separated into the primitive or derivative words which compose them, and these are divided by the preceding rules.

CAUTION. In writing, never divide a syllable at the end of a line.

ETYMOLOGY.

32. Definitions.

1. ETYMOLOGY treats of the classification, derivation, and various modifications of words.

2. A word is the sign of an idea, and is either spoken or written.

Syllabication, Rule II. Primitive, derivative, and compound words. Caution. Etymology.

33. Classes of Words.

1. According to their meaning and use, all words are divided into eight classes, called Parts of Speech.

2. All words are divided according to the number of syllables they contain, into monosyllables, dissyllables, trisyllables, and polysyllables. (18.)

3. Words are divided according to their formation, into primitive, derivative, and compound. (20.)

4. A primitive word is always a simple word.

5. Words which vary their forms in construction are called declinable. Those which do not vary them are indeclinable.

PARTS OF SPEECH.

34. Parts of Speech Defined.

1. In English, there are eight parts of speech—the Noun, the Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb, the Adverb, the Preposition, the Conjunction, and the Interjection.

2. A noun is the name of an object; as, fruit, Henry, Boston. (a.) The noun (from the Latin "nomen," a name) embraces a large number of words. All words which are the names of persons, animals, places, or things, material or immaterial, are called nouns.

3. An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify a noun; as, good, faithful, this, some.

(a.) The adjective (from the Latin "adjectus," added to, e., to a noun) embraces a large class of words, which are added to nouns to express their qualities, or to define them; as, "worthy citizens;" "this book." Those words which are united to nouns answering such questions as What? What kind? How many? are adjectives.

4. A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun; as, I, he, you, who.

(a.) This part of speech (derived from the Latin "pro," for, and "nomen," a name) embraces but a small number of different words; yet any noun may be represented by a pronoun. It will be seen that these three parts of speech are intimately connected: the first is the name of an object; the second expresses the properties of an object; the third may take the place of the first.

5. A verb is a word which expresses being, action, or state; as, be, read, sleep, is loved.

(a.) Nothing can be affirmed without a verb. It is derived from the Latin

Parts of speech. Noun. Adjective. Pronoun. Verb.

"verbum," the word, i. e., the important word; it embraces a large class of words. The different uses of the verb, as well as those of the other parts of speech, will be explained hereafter.

6. An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, adjective, participle, or another adverb; as, quickly, first, far.

(a.) The adverb (from the Latin “ad” and “verbum,” added to a verb) embraces all those words which are added to verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, to denote time, place, manner, &c.

7. A preposition is a word used to show the relation between a noun or pronoun and some other word; as, from, upon, on, with.

(a.) This part of speech includes a small list of words, which are used to denote the relations of place, time, cause, manner, property, quality, &c. It is called a preposition (from the Latin "præ," before, and "positio," a placing, a placing before) from the circumstance of its being placed before the object with which it is always associated.

8. A conjunction is a word used to connect sentences, or the parts of sentences; as, and, but, or.

(a.) The conjunction includes but a small number of words, which are used to join the parts of a sentence; it is derived from the Latin "conjunctus," joined together.

9. The interjection is used to express some strong or sudden emotion of the mind; as, O! alas!

(a.) The term interjection (from the Latin "interjectus," thrown between) is applied to a few words that do not enter into the structure of a sentence, but may be thrown in at pleasure, to express our feelings.

NOUNS.

35. Definition and Distinctions.

1. A noun is the name of an object; as, house, tree, Boston, goodness.

2. The word object, as here used, should be carefully distinguished from the same term employed in Syntax, to denote the complement of the transitive verb. It here denotes every species of existence, material or immaterial, which may be considered independently or alone; and is opposed to the term attribute, which always represents something dependent upon, belonging to, or inherent in an object.

3. It will be perceived that the idea of substance or independent existence is the basis of the distinction between the noun and the adjective; yet it must be remembered that nouns or adjectives are mere

Adverb. Preposition. Conjunction. Interjection. Noun defined. Object. Attribute.