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(b.) When an objective clause is a direct quotation (170), and is separated by the principal clause, the latter should be pointed off by two commas,— otherwise by one; as, "For all that," said the pendulum, "it is very dark here ;" ;" "I say unto all, Watch."

(c.) The double object of a copulative verb should not be separated when the first has the emphasis, or when they are equally emphatic; as, "They called him John;" "They called Miles a carpenter." But when the emphasis falls strongly on the second, it should be pointed off; as, "And they called Barnabas, Jupiter; and Paul, Mercurius."

4. The adverbial element is often more loosely connected than either the adjective or the objective, and is, consequently, more frequently transposed; yet, when arranged in its natural order, whether it be a word, phrase, or clause, or when closely connected, it should not be pointed off; as, "Rejoice not when thine enemy falleth; and let not thine heart be glad when he stumbleth;" "On the summit of the mountain ́the air is cool and refreshing;" "The child was treated kindly.”

(a.) All loosely connected adverbial expressions, whether words, phrases, or clauses, and especially such adverbial and conjunctive words and phrases as again, now, then, however, therefore, too, besides, further, once more, in fine, in general, on the contrary, without doubt, as it seems to me, and the like, should be pointed off (248 and 241, 3); as, " On the contrary, the truth lies here." (b.) Phrases and clauses, which, in the natural order, would be so closely connected as to need no point, are usually pointed off when inverted, and always when the meaning would be doubtful without a point; as, "But to Ossian, thou lookest in vain ;" "When thou goest, thy steps shall not be straitened." In the case of inverted phrases, which commence a sentence, the point is often omitted; as, “On the third day Burke rose.”—Macaulay.

(c.) Adverbial clauses, especially when long, and always if loosely connected, are pointed off, wherever placed. These are generally such as denote condition, purpose, concession, cause, time, or place; as, "Kiss the Son, lest he be angry, and ye perish."

(d.) When a subordinate element is connected by means of correlatives, it is closely united, and, therefore, not generally pointed off, especially when than or as, 80-that, or such-that, are used; but is used more or less by way of contrast in all other cases, and, hence, pointed off; as, "Never take more food than is conducive to health;" "Though thou be sought for, yet shalt thou never be found again;""Though deep, yet clear."

245. Exercise.

In the following examples, point out the principal and the subordinate elements; and show why the comma is, or is not, used according to (244, 1, 2, 3, 4)::

He that covereth his sins shall not prosper; but whoso confesseth and forsaketh them shall have mercy. The wicked flee when no man pur

The adverbial element, when pointed off, when not.

sueth. Some have wondered how it happens that those who have shone conspicuously at the bar should have been eclipsed in the senate. He had faults unknown to all but his most intimate friends (2, a. b. c.). Men of strong minds, who think for themselves, should not be discouraged, on finding occasionally that some of their best ideas have been anticipated by former writers. There are many good-natured fellows who have paid the forfeit of their lives to their love of bantering and raillery. The oranges, lemons, and figs, which grow in the northern range of the Southern States, are of an inferior quality. No thought can he just, of which good sense is not the ground-work. I therefore, the prisoner of the Lord, beseech you. Thus saith the Lord, your Redeemer, the Holy One of Israel, I am the Lord, your God. General Howe commanded the British forces. Otis, James A. O ye laurels! He called the name of that place Bethel. Daniel Webster, the great American statesman, died at Marshfield. I at first believed that all these objects existed within me. And cried, "I've caught you then at last." "My dear Edward," said he, "this is truly kind.” Fortunately for him, a little below this place was an island. The beginning of strife is as

when one letteth out water. If one burden can be borne, so can another and another. I am willing, for the general satisfaction, to assign my reasons.

246. The Principal Elements.

1. Except when the complex subject is very long, no comma is required between it and the predicate; as, "He who masters his passions conquers his greatest enemy."

2. It can scarcely be called an exception to this rule, that a point should be placed before the predicate, when preceded by a phrase pointed off by (244, 4, a.); as, "The most delicious fruits, generally speaking, are found in tropical climates." So, again by (242, 6, a.) a comma should be placed before the predicate; as, "Patience, meekness, humility, are among the noblest Christian virtues."

3. When the logical subject ends with a verb, or when, without a comma, the meaning might be doubtful, a comma should be placed before the predicate; as, "Whatever is, is right."

4. When the attribute is a clause, a comma should be placed between it and the copula; as, "The reason is, that the proposition itself is preposterous."

247. Exercise.

Show by (246, 1, 2, 3, 4) why the comma is used or omitted in the following examples:

The fate of a brave people was to be decided. Each of the negotia

No point between the subject and predicate. Exceptions.

tors had what the other wanted. Some, from a diseased fancy, cannot confine themselves to a single spot. All these mistaken pursuers of good, sooner or later, are the prey of excessive ennui. Industry, frugality, economy, are essential to thrift. The want of fuel, of water,

He who has learned to

and of forage, compelled the party to retreat. obey, may hope to govern. He that seeketh, findeth. The truth is, that the whole of the surface of these beautiful plains is clad throughout the season of verdure with every imaginable variety of color. The question is, "Where shall we go?"

248. Independent and Parenthetic Expressions.

1. Independent expressions should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma; as, "Yet once more, 0 ye laurels ;" "Gad, a troop shall overcome him ;" "This said, he formed thee Adam, thee, O man;""To confess the truth, I was in error;" "Generally speaking, little can be done after the first month;" "Saying, Lord, Lord, open unto us."

(a.) When a direct address is expressive of strong feeling, the exclamation point is used; as, "O Desdemona! Desdemona! dead!"

(b.) Interjections in many cases require no pause, but when pointed off at all, are separated by the comma, if not emphatic; otherwise by the exclamation point; as, "O sing to me of Heaven;" "Lo, here is Christ;""Oh! what a situation I am placed in ?"

(c.) Expressions used parenthetically should be pointed off by the comma; as, "Thou knowest, come what may, that the light of truth cannot be put out."

249. The Semicolon and Colon.

1. The semicolon is used to separate the parts of a sentence which are loosely connected; as, "Make a proper use of your time; for the loss of it can never be regained."

(a.) Coördinate principal clauses are separated by the semicolon when the conjunction is omitted, or when the connection is not close; as, "Life is short; art is long;" "A clownish air is but a small defect; yet it is enough to make a man disagreeable."

(b.) Subordinate parts, when extended, if they form a coördinate series either at the beginning or end of a sentence, are separated by the semicolon, when not so closely connected as to require a comma.

Independent expressions separated by points,-sometimes by a comma, sometimes by an exclamation point. Parenthetical expressions.

EXAMPLE." Philosophers assert that Nature is unlimited in her operations; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; that knowledge will always be progressive; and that all future generations will continue to make discoveries of which we have not the slightest idea."

(c.) The semicolon should be placed before as, used to introduce an example. See the examples in the preceding paragraphs.

(d.) The semicolon is used before namely, viz., to wit, when the subdivisions of a preceding term are introduced in a formal way; otherwise the comma or dash is used; as, Pronouns are divided into three classes; namely, Personal, Relative, and Interrogative." Less formally, thus:-"Into three classes-Personal, Relative, and Interrogative."

(e.) The colon is now but little used except before examples following the expressions as follows, the following examples, in these words, &c.; as, "Perform the following exercises :" "He used these words: Mr. President:" &c. It is also used to separate the terms of a proportion; as, "A: B:: C: D."

250. Exercise.

Insert the comma, the semicolon, and the colon where they are required in the following examples:

Never value yourself upon your fortune for this is the sign of a weak mind. Pope had perhaps the judgment of Dryden but Dryden certainly wanted the diligence of Pope. The great tendency and purpose of poetry is to carry the mind above and beyond the beaten dusty weary walks of ordinary life to lift it into a purer element and to breathe into it more profound and generous emotion. Write on your slates the following example Mary and John will go. Endeavor to excel much may be accomplished by perseverance. He has two coats namely a black one and a gray one. The noun is the name of an object as Boston paper.

251. The Dash and Parenthesis.

1. The dash is used where there is a significant pause, an unexpected transition in the sentence, or where a sentence is left unfinished; as, "He sometimes counsel takes, and sometimes— snuff." "But I must first —."

2. The dash is now frequently used instead of the parenthesis; as, "The colonists-such is human nature-desired to burn the town in which they had been so wretched."

3. The dash, or comma and dash, may be placed before the parts which resume a whole, or before a construction which is resumed; as,

The colon. The dash.

"You

"There are three persons-the first, the second, and the third." speak like a boy,—like a boy who thinks the old gnarled oak can be twisted as easy as the young sapling."

4. The parenthesis is used to enclose a part of a sentence not necessary to the construction, but in some way explanatory of the meaning of the sentence; as, "Consider (and may the consideration sink deep into your hearts) the fatal consequences of a wicked life."

252. Exercise.

Insert the dash and the parenthesis where they are required in the following examples :

Horror burst the bands of sleep; but my feelings words are too weak, too powerless to express them. The Egyptian style of architecture see Dr. Pocock, not his discourses but his prints was apparently the mother of the Greek. While they wished to please, and why should they not wish it, they disdained honorable means. If thou art he, so much respected once but, O, how fallen! how degraded! The atmosphere is composed of three parts oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid gas. Greece, Carthage, Rome where are they?

POINTS USED AT THE CLOSE OF A SENTENCE.

253. The Period.

1. The period is used at the close of a declarative or an imperative sentence; as, "Knowledge is not only pleasant, but useful and honorable."

2. The period is used after abbreviations; as, "The age of MSS. is, in some instances, known by dates inserted in them;" "I was invited to meet Mr. and Mrs. Clifford."

3. The period is placed after any word, heading, title, or other expression used independently and alone; as, Exercise. The Period. H. Cowperthwait and Company.

4. The period is used after numeral letters; as, V. XII.

254. Exercise.

Insert the period where it is required in the following examples :-
Truth is the basis of every virtue It is the voice of reason

Let its

Parenthesis. Period, at the close of a sentence; after abbreviations, words, headings, &c.; after numeral letters.

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