has a similar connection when a phrase becomes the attribute; as, boy is in the field." Compare "The boy in the field.”

"The

MODEL III. "It is almost as hard a thing to be a poet in despite of fortune, as it is in despite of nature."—Cowley.

This is a complex sentence, consisting of one principal and one subordinate clause. It is introduced by the expletive "it," which is disposed of as in Model II., 199. Arranged grammatically, it stands,— "To be a poet in despite of fortune, is almost as hard a thing as it is in despite of nature." The logical subject is, "to be a poet in despite of fortune;' the logical predicate is, “is almost as hard a thing as [to be a poet] is in despite of nature." The grammatical subject is "to be a poet," and is limited by the complex phrase "in despite of fortune." This is an adverbial element, since it limits not "poet," but the whole idea, "to be a poet." The copula is "is," the simple attribute, "thing;" it is parsed as in Model I. The attribute "thing" is limited by "a," and by "as hard as [to be a poet] is in despite of nature," a complex adjective element; it is of the first class, since the basis is "hard ;” it is complex, since the basis is limited by "as [to be a poet] is in despite of nature," which shows a comparison between two things, or the two conditions of being a poet, and would be a comparison of equality, but for the effect of "almost." In the subordinate clause, "as" is the connective, and joins the adverbial clause to "hard,"-the connection is strengthened by the correlative adverb "as" in the principal clause. The subordinate clause is introduced by the expletive "it," and when completed and arranged grammatically, stands "[to be a poet] in despite of nature is [hard]." This clause is analyzed like the principal clause.

"Poet" is a part of the grammatical subject of both clauses; "to be" is not the grammatical subject, since it no more expresses an idea than does the copula (80, 5). The simple idea is, “to be a poet.”

"Poet" is a common noun, 3d pers. sing. masc. nom. and is used as the attribute of an abridged proposition, namely, "That one should be a poet in despite of fortune, &c."- "To be a poet in despite of fortune, &c." The subject "one" is entirely dropped from the sentence in abridging the proposition, and hence by Rule II., 1, b., "poet" is in the predicate nominative absolute. See 216, 1, Model V.

2. Construct, analyze, and parse examples of your own similar to the preceding.

3. Correct by the Cautions, not only the following examples, but any other similar ones heard in conversation:

Is it me? No; but it is him. I never thought of its being him; I took it to be she. Whom do you think it is? It may have been her,

Models.

but I always supposed it to be he. Whom do people say it is? They say they do not know whom it is. Who do you think it is? I think it is them. I cannot believe it to be he. If I were him, I would know. whom it is. If I had been sure of its being her, I should have been present.

The noun is the agent and the verb is the action. What part of speech is each boy in this room? The first person is the speaker. The animal horse is a noun. To be convicted of bribery, was then a crime altogether unpardonable. I is the first person. "Have written" is the present perfect tense.

MODELS. "It is her" is incorrect, because the attribute "her" is in the objective case; but by Caution I. the attribute of a finite verb should never be in the objective case. It should be, "It is she."

"I took it to be he," is incorrect, because the nominative "he" follows the infinitive "to be," preceded by its objective subject "it." By Caution I. it should be, "I took it to be him."

66

You is the second person" is incorrect, because “you” being a pronoun is not a person, and hence is falsely identified by "person." By Caution II. we should avoid such constructions. It should be, "You is of the second person,” that is, a pronoun of the second person.

202. Agreement of the Pronoun.

1. RULE III. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person, number, and gender; as, "Those who are most consistent are not more unlike to others, than they are to themselves.”

(a.) A pronoun relating to a collective noun in the singular, is put in the neuter singular, when the noun denotes unity, but in the masculine or feminine plural, when it denotes plurality; as, "A civilized people has no right to violate its solemn obligations, because the other party is uncivilized;" "The committee having made their report, were discharged."

(b.) A pronoun relating to an antecedent consisting of coördinate terms, agrees with it by Rule XII. See also (220, 1, a. b., &c.).

2. Interrogative pronouns commonly refer to objects unknown to the speaker; and hence the person, number, and gender must be assumed till the person or thing inquired for becomes known. Although the pronoun may not agree with the true antecedent, it does agree, by rule, with the assumed, and consistency should be preserved in every reference to it. The following sentence is wrong,-" Who was not charmed with the music they heard?" Was should be changed to were, or they to he. Again, a pronoun relating to a singular antecedent limited by many a is commonly put in the plural; as, “I

Inter

The pronoun,-relating to a collective noun-to coördinate terms. rogatives relate to an assumed object. Pronouns without an antecedent.

have heard many an act of devotion in my life, had heaven vouchsafed me grace to profit by them."-Scott.

3. The pronoun "it," when used as in (200, 3) has no antecedent; as, 66 It rains;" "It is David." "It" is often used to refer to a young child, or to animals, when the sex is disregarded; as, "The true friend of the child is he who regards its future well-being;" "The raccoon feeds chiefly by night, keeping in its hole during the day." As an expletive, "it" either has no antecedent, as, "Come and trip it as you go," or it refers to some phrase or clause transposed from its natural position; as, "It is good for me to be afflicted." See 70, 4.

4. A pronoun sometimes refers (apparently contrary to the general rule) to a noun, taken from its ordinary signification; as, "We studied Woodbridge's Elements of Geography on its first appearance before the public." "When we say books is a noun, we classify it," that is, the word, not the objects themselves; "Herod, which (not who) is another name for cruelty."

5. The English language being destitute of a pronoun of the third person, which may apply equally to either sex, an erroneous use of they, referring to person, any one, or some one, has been adopted even by respectable writers to conceal the gender, or to avoid an awkward use of he or she, thus: "If any one would test these rules for the preservation of health, they (he or she) must persevere in all states of the weather." The want of such a pronoun is still more apparent when the speaker has a definite person before his mind, and wishes to conceal the gender; thus: "The person who gave me this information desired me to conceal name." When the person referred to belongs to an assemblage, known to be composed wholly of males, or wholly of females, the masculine or feminine pronoun should be used accordingly. But when the person belongs to an assemblage of males and females, usage has sanctioned the employment of a masculine pronoun; thus, "Is any among you afflicted? let him" (not them,—not him or her) "pray.”

6. When things or animals are personified, they should be represented as persons by the pronouns employed; as, "Next Anger rushed, his eyes on fire." "The wolf who from the nightly fold fierce drags the bleating prey."

7. The pronoun usually follows its antecedent, but sometimes it is placed first; as, "Hark! they whisper; angels say."

8. Relative and interrogative pronouns are usually placed at the beginning of their clauses, even though the order of construction would assign them some other position; as, "Paternus had but one son, whom he educated himself."

9. The relative in the objective is sometimes omitted; as, "Here is the present [which] he gave me." The antecedent is not unfrequently omitted; as, "[He] Who steals my purse, steals trash."

The antecedent is not unfrequently a part of a sentence; as, "The boy closed the blinds, which darkened the room;" and sometimes a possessive; as, Supreme authority, strictly speaking, is only His who created the universe."

The want of a pronoun common gender. Objects personified. Position of the antecedent.

Position of Relatives and Interrogatives. Relative omitted.

10. In disposing of a personal pronoun, two rules should be given, one for its agreement, and one for its construction; in disposing of a relative, we should add to these the rule for it as a connective; and in case of what, whatever, or whatsoever, still another to explain its use as an adjective.

11. The construction of the relative is independent of its antecedent. It may be in the nominative case, as subject of a finite verb―nominative absolute, possessive case, or in the objective case, governed by a transitive verb, or by a preposition; as, "They who speak." "We ordered the horses to be harnessed, which being done, we commenced our journey." "He hastened to the palace of his sovereign, into whose presence his hoary locks and mournful visage soon obtained admission." "The person whom I saw." "Whom did you take him to be?" "The man whom they call the janitor." "This is the rule to which we called his attention."

12. The relative which formerly referred as well to persons as things; as, "Our Father which art in heaven." It was sometimes preceded by the definite article; as, "In the which ye also walked sometime."-Bible. When used interrogatively, which may refer to persons; as, "Which of the two was the wiser man?"

13. The relative pronoun is

(a.) Restrictive, when it introduces a clause which restricts the general idea denoted by the antecedent,—

(b.) Explanatory, when it simply resumes the idea expressed by the antecedent, either in its full extent or as previously defined.

When used in a restrictive sense, it joins the proposition which it introduces to the antecedent, imparting to the clause the qualities of an adjective. When thus used, it often has, prefixed to the antecedent, a correlative, such as the, this, that, these, those; the adjective clause becomes a necessary addition to the antecedent to complete the limitation intimated by these words. When used in an explanatory way, the relative introduces an additional proposition, and is equivalent to and he, and she, and it, and they; as, "He gave me a book, which he requested me to read" He gave me a book, and he re

quested me to read it.

=

That, what, and as, are always used restrictively. Who and which may be either restrictive or explanatory.

14. When the relative is governed by a preposition, it is generally best to place the latter at the beginning of the clause; as, "This is the subject to which he alluded," not "which he alluded to." But when the relative that is thus governed, the preposition is always placed at the end; as, "Here is the last bridge that we shall come to." It is better not to employ that when the governing preposition is understood; yet sometimes it is so used; as, "In the day that thou eatest thereof, thou shalt surely die."

15. The compound relatives whoever, whoso, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever, differ from the simple in two respects; (1.) they

Construction of the relative. Former use of which. Restrictive and explanatory use of the relative. Position of the relative when the object of a preposition. The relatives whoever, whoso, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever.

show that the antecedent is to be taken universally, that is, in the full extent of its application; (2.) the antecedent, especially in the compounds of who and what, is generally understood, and hence these words must either have a double construction or an antecedent must be supplied; as, "Whoever seeks, shall find" Any one who seeks shall find; "The soldiers made proclamation that they would sell the empire to whoever [any one who] would purchase it at the highest price."

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16. The words what, whatever, and whatsoever differ from other pronouns in another important respect; they combine in one word both the relative and its correlative (13), and thus are equivalent to the, this, that, these, those— which; hence, they perform the office of a limiting adjective, and at the same time that of a relative pronoun; and hence, too, unlike all other relative pronouns, they are placed before the antecedent (except as in 18 below) when expressed (75, 5, and 76, 3); the compounds differ from the simple what as above (15); sometimes the simple what is separated from the affix by the antecedent; as, "Whatsoever plague, whatsoever sickness there may be, what prayer and supplication soever be made by any man.”—1 Kings viii. 37, 38. (See 77, 5, 6, 7).

17. Whoever, whatever, whichever, whichsoever, and whatsoever are often used to introduce and connect an adversative subordinate clause (see Anal. 327, 6); as, "Whatever you may say, he persists in doing it." In this case an adversative preposition is understood to govern the antecedent; as, “Whatever,” that is, [Notwithstanding] whatever useful or engaging endowments we possess, virtue is requisite in order to their shining with proper lustre" Notwithstanding all those useful or engaging endowments which we possess, &c. Here endowments is governed by notwithstanding, and which by possess. It is an error to say, as some do, that whatever, here, is simply an adjective, for then we should have no relative word to connect the clauses.

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18. Whatever and whatsoever are often used to express universality (15), emphatically; as, "I have no confidence whatever in the proposed measure." Here, as in comparisons after than or as, the subject of the subordinate clause being given, the rest is to be supplied; as, "I have no confidence whatever [it may be] in the proposed measure." It is an error here to suppose that whatever is a mere adjective, or is like the emphatic personal pronoun himself, as in the following,-" The declarations contained in them [the Scriptures] rest on the authority of God himself; and there can be no appeal from them to any other authority whatsoever" [that authority may be]. Care should be taken in these difficult constructions not to make a pleonastic use of a personal pronoun or other word. The following sentence is faulty; "Whatsoever he saith unto you, do it," omit it.

19. When interrogative clauses are quoted indirectly (170, 1), the interrogative pronoun is used indefinitely, having only an implied antecedent (2 above); as, "What shall I do? I know not what I shall do." Here the whole clause is the object of know, and what of shall do. When such clauses are abridged, thus, "I know not what to do;" the whole expression "What to do," is the double object of know, and what is the object of "to do." So, "I know not whom to send."

What, whatever, and whatsoever, include a correlative. Compound relatives used adversatively. Emphatic universality. Interrogative pronouns.