nate clause; as, "When peace of mind is secured, we may smile at misfortune;""Peace of mind being secured, we may smile at misfortune."

6. A subordinate clause is abridged by dropping its connective, and changing the predicate into a participle or an infinitive. The subject is dropped when it has already been expressed in the principal clause, otherwise it must be retained, either in the nominative, possessive, or objective. The predicate is never dropped.

NOTE.-A proposition is abridged when it loses its copula, or power to predicate, even if the number of words or syllables should be increased by the change.

7. In case a clause should form one term of a comparison, the appropriate connective of the clause is dropped; but that which shows the comparison is retained; as, "The bed is shorter than that a man can stretch himself in it."-Bible. Abridged, it would be, "The bed is shorter than for a man to stretch," &c. In this example, the subjects of the clauses are unlike. When the subjects are alike, that of the subordinate clause is dropped by rule, and the simple infinitive is all that remains; as, "My friend was so elated as that he forgot his appointment" as to forget his appointment;" "The soldiers desired nothing more than to know where the enemy was." So, again, in case of incorporated interrogative sentences, the interrogative being used both as a connective and a material part of the clause (156, 4), must be retained when the clause is abridged; as, "I knew not what I should do" — I knew not what to do (201, 19). In the same way we have, I know not whom to send, where to go, when to stop.

8. Logically considered, the derived expression as a whole is an equivalent (186) of the original, and sustains the same relation in the sentence. In the full form, all the words within the clause have the same construction as in a simple sentence, but are wholly independent of any word which may govern the clause. But grammatically considered, the words of the abridged clause cease to have the construction of the simple sentence; the subject is no longer subject, the predicate is no longer predicate, and either one or the other must be affected by the word which governed the primitive clause. Thus, in the sentence, "I believe that he is an honest man," no word in the subordinate clause is changed to show that, as a whole, the clause is the object of "believe." But in the abridged form, "I believe him to be an honest man,” “he” becomes "him," the principal object of "believe," and "to be an honest man," the attributive object (211, 0) "man," being in the objective, to agree with "him" by (161, 3).

9. When the relation of the subordinate clause is such as not to come under the governing influence of any word, as when it denotes a causal

Rule for abridging a proposition. Clauses denoting comparison. Effect of the governing word.

or concomitant circumstance, the subject of the abridged proposition is, as it were, absolved from any regimen from without, and remains unchanged in the nominative, called the nominative absolute, and the predicate noun, if there be any, remains also in the nominative by (161, 3); as, "Since a youth is their leader, what can they do?" A YOUTH being their LEADER, what can they do?

10. When the subject is dropped, the predicate alone is affected by the word which governed the full proposition. This is the case with nearly all adjective clauses, where the participle as an adjective becomes subordinate to the word which the clause limits; as, "The ship which glided over the waves" - The ship gliding over the waves. It is also the case in many adverbial clauses, where the participle as a noun is governed by a preposition used to show the adverbial relation; as, "When they approached the city, they were met by a select committee" ing the city, they were met, &c.

On approach

11. So, again, when the subject is not dropped, but is made wholly subordinate to the abridged predicate, the latter as a noun stands in the same relation as the full form, and the former modifies it; as, "I was not aware that he lived in the city" I was not aware of his living in the city. The participle of the predicate is made especially prominent, while the subject seems to remain in the nominative in abridged propositions introduced by the expletive "there;" as, "Was this owing to there being twelve primary deities among the Gothic nations?" In such constructions, after "let" with the infinitive, the subject seems to be in the objective case; as, "Let there be light" = Let light be or exist.

12. When the subject noun takes the leading place, the predicate noun agrees with it in case (161, 3); but when the subject is dropped (9), and has no representative in the sentence, or when it becomes subordinate to the abridged predicate (10), the predicate noun is freed from any control of the subject, and remains as the predicate nominative absolute; as, "To be a scholar requires patient and persevering labor;" "I was not aware of his being a foreigner;" "I am not sure of its being he." 66 'Foreigner" refers logically to "his," but does not agree with it This case is analogous to that of the adjective when used abstractly (204, 19) or absolutely; as, "To be good is to be happy." For further examples see Analysis, p. 167.

in case.

183. Varieties of Partial Compounds.

:

1. The parts combined may be sentence-elements (161, 2) :

(a.) Two or more subjects; “Despair and anguish fled the struggling soul." (b.) Two or more predicates; as, "She plans, provides, expatiates, triumphs there."

The predicate affected by the governing word. Predicate nominative absolute. Varieties of partial compounds.

(c.) Two or more adjective elements; as, "Supreme and undivided homage should be paid to goodness and truth."

(d.) Two or more objective elements (direct or indirect); as,

"Who, to the enraptured heart, and

ear, and eye,

Teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody."

(e.) Two or more adverbial elements; as, "Benefits should be long and gratefully remembered."

2. The parts combined may be elements of elements (159, 2).

Any remote element may be compound; as, "The Esquimaux inhabit a cold and inhospitable country." But all such sentences may be regarded as simple.

184. Varieties of Sentences with Abridged Propositions. I. When the predicate becomes a participle (182, 6).

1. Where the subject is dropped, and the participle used as an adjective, (a.) Having a simple participle; as, "A man who perseveres" vering man.

A perse

(b.) Having the participle modified; as, "There are moral principles [which slumber] slumbering in the souls of the most depraved."

2. Where the subject is dropped, and the participle used as a noun,

(a.) Wholly as a noun; as, "The sighing of the poor."

(b.) With the construction of the noun, but limited like the verb;

As subject or predicate, "Loving our neighbor as ourselves is fulfilling the law."

Object of verb or preposition; "We should avoid breaking a promise;" "On approaching the house, the sound of a bell was faintly heard."

3. When the subject is dropped, and the participle is used adverbially, (a.) Denoting time; as, "Having finished my letter, I returned" I had finished, &c.

When

(b.) Denoting an accompanying action; "The torrent came rushing from the mountain."

4. Where the subject or predicate noun is retained (182, 6),

(a.) The subject noun in the nominative absolute; as, "The party having arrived, the dinner was prepared."

(b.) The predicate noun in the nominative absolute; as, "Being a servant to everybody is not so agreeable."

(c.) The subject and predicate noun both in the nominative; as, “A youth being their leader, what could they do?"

(d.) The subject in the possessive limiting the participle used as a noun; as, "What do you think of his studying law?"

(e.) The subject in the possessive, and the predicate noun or pronoun in the nominative; as, "I am not sure of its being the judge, or of its being he." II. When the predicate becomes an infinitive (182, 6).

1. The infinitive without its subject or predicate noun,
(a.) As subject of the sentence; as, "To see the sun is pleasant."

Varieties of sentences with abridged propositions.

(b.) As attribute of the predicate; as, "The school is to commence on Monday."

(c.) As both subject and attribute; as, " To obey is to enjoy," "He seems to sleep."

(d.) As adjective element; as, "Time to come," "A desire to go." (e.) As object after transitive verbs; as, "She loves to read."

(f.) As adverbial element denoting purpose; as, "What went ye out to see?” (9.) As adverbial element denoting a result (182, 7) after too, than, 80, as ; as, "He is too proud to beg," "He is wiser than to attempt such an enterprise;" "Be so good as to hear."

2. The infinitive with its subject or predicate noun.

(a.) With its subject objective governed by for, and the combination used as subject of the sentence; as, "For you to steal is base."

(b.) With the predicate noun in the nominative, the whole used as subject; as, "To be a scholar requires persevering labor."

(c.) With both subject and predicate noun in the objective, the group being the subject of the sentence; as, "For that boy to be a scholar is impossible;" or, "It is impossible for that boy to be a scholar."

(d.) With its subject in the objective used as object of a transitive verb (197, .1, a.); as, "He ordered the horse to be harnessed."

(e.) With the subject and predicate noun both in the objective, the infinitive being understood; as, "They considered him [to be] a traitor."

185. Exercise.

1. Point out the contracted sentences, and change them to complex or compound sentences :—

Talent is

Having called the captain, I was ordered to call all hands. serious, sober, grave, and respectable: tact is all that, and more too. It is the open eye, the quick ear, the judging taste, the keen smell, and the lively touch. The nobility and cavaliers came to the gates to receive him. After contemplating these objects for some time, we set off, and soon arrived at the foot of the great crater of the mountain. The scholarly Arnold, chafed by the attritions of the age, and vexed by the doubt-clouds which darkened upon his gallant soul, lost his trouble in its company, and looked through it (Pilgrim's Progress) to the Bible. It may be painful to dwell on such a representation. I cannot afford, at present, to set before you a vivid picture of the other miseries carried in the train of war.

For we 've sworn by our country's assaulters,

By the virgins they 've dragged from our altars,
That, living, we will be victorious :-

Or that, dying, our death shall be glorious!

Varieties of sentences with abridged propositions.

186. Equivalent Elements.

1. Whenever a sentence undergoes a change in the form of any of its elements, without any material change in the meaning, it is said to be transformed, and the new forms of the elements, which express the same, or nearly the same meaning, are called equivalents.

=

Thus, "After he had discovered Hispaniola, Columbus returned to Spain" Having discovered Hispaniola, Columbus returned to Spain. Here the subordinate clause denoting time is exchanged to an equivalent abridged proposition denoting time (184, I. 3, a).

2. We may change the form of a sentence

(a.) By altering the grammatical construction of any of its elements;

(b.) By supplying any element suppressed by ellipsis;

(c.) By transposing any element to another part of the sentence.

3. We may alter the grammatical construction of an element in the following cases :—

(a.) We may use the active for the passive voice, or the passive for the active; as, "Columbus discovered America" = America was discovered by Columbus.

(b.) We may change an element of the first class (166, 1) to one of the second, or one of the second to one of the first; as, "A morning ride is refreshing" A ride in the morning is refreshing.

=

(c.) A complex sentence may be changed to a simple sentence (or a contracted complex) by abridging its subordinate clause (182, 6); as, "When the shower had passed, we resumed our journey" The shower having passed, we resumed our journey.

=

(d.) A simple sentence may be changed to a complex by expanding any of its elements into a proposition; as, "A merciful man is merciful to his beast" A man who is merciful, is merciful to his beast.

(e.) A complex sentence may be changed to a compound, by raising the subordinate clause to an equal rank with the principal, and changing the subordinate connective to a coördinate; as, "When spring comes, the flowers will bloom" The spring will come, and the flowers will bloom.

(f.) A compound sentence may be changed to a complex, by depressing one of its propositions into a subordinate rank; as, "Man has a moral sense, and therefore he is an accountable being" Since man has a moral sense, he is an accountable being.

(g.) A question for gaining assent (148, 5) may be changed into a declarative sentence, or a declarative sentence may be changed into a question for gaining assent; as, "Will he plead against me with his great power?" He will not plead against me with his great power.

=

(h.) Any sentence is said to be reconstructed, or recast, when the former construction is wholly disregarded; as, "That which agrees with the will of God

Equivalent elements. Transformation of the active to the passive voice, of a word to a phrase, of a complex to a simple sentence and the reverse, of a complex to a compound sentence and the reverse, of an interrogative to a declarative sentence. Reconstruction.