167. Elements of the Second Class.-Phrases.

1. When an expression, in its simplest form, has one word to represent an idea, and another to show its relation, it is a phrase or element of the second class.

EXAMPLE." A statue of marble—was chiselled-by the artist.”

NOTE.-Any group of words not containing an assertion is a phrase; as, 66 very earnestly;" "quite favorably ;" but here each word expresses an idea. A phrase, as used in analysis of sentences, is restricted to a group of words having one word to show a relation, and another either alone or modified to express an idea; as, "at dawn;"" at early dawn."

2. When a phrase depends upon one of the subordinate elements, it is still an element of the second class, but not a sentence-element (159, 2); as, "A popular poet had the post of honor."

3. All phrases, as a whole, are either substantive, adjective, or adverbial (156, 2).

4. Every simple phrase should be separated into its two parts; and every complex or compound phrase into its simple elements. For a full discussion of Phrases, see Analysis, Chap. II.

168. Elements of the Third Class.-Clauses.

1. When an expression, in its simplest form, has a proposition to represent an idea and some word to show its relation, it is a clause or element of the third class.

EXAMPLE." Satan, whom now transcendent glory raised above his fellows,

spake."

2. A clause, like a phrase, is always a group of words; but, unlike a phrase, it always contains a proposition.

3. A clause is a sentence-element (159, 2) only when it is used as the subject, predicate, or part directly dependent upon one of these; otherwise, it is but an element of an element.

Examples of clauses used as sentence-elements.—"That a man of mighty genius can impart himself to other minds is well known to all." "He who teaches often learns himself." "Thou knowest that virtue cannot be despoiled of its deathless crown." "If thine enemy hunger, feed him."

Examples of clauses used as parts of elements.—" They-sailed-in the steamer which left on Wednesday ;" "I-experienced—a pleasure which I cannot describe."

4. All subordinate clauses are either substantive, adjective, or adverbial, (159, 2), and may take the grammatical construction of the parts of speech which they represent.

Phrases-substantive,

A phrase when a sentence-element-when not. adjective, or adverbial. Subordinate clauses-substantive, adjective, adverbial.

A clause-when a sentence-element-when not.

5. A simple subordinate clause consists of a connective, and a proposition containing a subject and a predicate only (150, 10). A complex clause is formed by adding modifying elements to the subject or predicate of a simple clause. See Analysis, Chap. III.

169. Exercise.

Separate the following sentences into their elements, and tell which are of the FIRST CLASS, which of the SECOND, and which of the THIRD :—

Regard the rights of property. Columbus died in ignorance of the real grandeur of his discovery. On Prague's proud arch the fires of ruin glow. The credulity which has faith in goodness is a sign of goodness. The noble Brutus hath told you Cæsar was ambitious. We stand the latest, and if we fail, probably the last, experiment of self-government by the people. We have begun it under circumstances of the most auspicious nature. We are in the vigor of youth. Our growth has never been checked by the oppressions of tyranny. The Atlantic rolls between us and any formidable foe.

Lochiel, Lochiel, beware of the day

When the Lowlands shall meet thee in battle array.

170. Direct and Indirect Quotation.

1. When a writer quotes the thought of another, and incorporates it into a sentence of his own, he may introduce it

(a.) As a thought of the author narrated by himself in his own words exactly; or

(b.) As an idea of the speaker adopted from the author, and narrated for the latter in his own words nearly.

The first is called direct quotation; as, “He said, ' I will do it." The second is called indirect quotation; as, "He said, that he would do it.”

2. The quoted part is used substantively, and appears as a substantive clause most commonly in the objective.

3. All substantive clauses may be divided into those containing (a.) A statement or a command; as, "Many suppose that the planets are inhabited;" """The captain gave the order, 'shoulder arms.'

(b.) An inquiry; as, "Let me ask why you have come?”

4. In quoting a statement of another directly, we should indicate the quotation by the marks, or the use of the capital, without a connective (160, 5). But in quoting indirectly, the quotation marks are omitted, and the connective that should be employed; as, "God said, Let there be light, and there was light;"" St. John says that God is love."

Simple and complex clauses. Quotation,-when direct and when indirect. A substantive clause, a statement, an inquiry. Quoted questions-direct and indirect.

5. In quoting an inquiry of another, two cases may occur,

(a.) The interrogative may be a direct question (148, 7, 8) without an interrogative word; or,

(b.) It may be an indirect question, with an interrogative pronoun or adverb for a connective (78, 5).

6. When a direct or indirect question is quoted directly, the quoted part should begin with a capital, or receive the quotation marks, having the interrogation point at the close; as, "They inquired, Will he certainly come?" "He asked, How long must we wait ?"

7. When a direct question is quoted indirectly, the connective whether (sometimes if) is used, the quotation marks are omitted, and a period is placed at the close, as, "He asked whether the time had arrived." When an indirect question is quoted indirectly, the interrogative word becomes the connective, and the sentence closes with the period, the quoted part having no quotation marks; as, "They asked where we were to stop."

8. It should be observed that in indirect quotation, the person of the subject, the mode and tense of the verb, and the arrangement of the parts, are often changed; as, "He said, 'I will be present at an early hour;” “He said that he would be present at an early hour."

9. The quoted passage, whether direct or indirect, may form either of the five elements of the sentence, except the adverbial.

EXAMPLES." Will he do it?' is the question;" "The question is, Will he do it?"" "The question, 'Will he do it?' has not yet been answered." "He said that he would do it.”

10. It should be observed that the interrogation point follows all interrogative clauses when quoted directly, and is omitted after all such clauses when quoted indirectly. This last remark must not be confounded with those cases where the principal clause is interrogative; as, "Shall I tell where we met with encouragement?" "Do you ask me who I am?"

11. The clause, which is usually the leading one, may take

(a.) A prominent position; as, "They say that they have bought it." (b.) An intermediate position; as, "For all that," said the pendulum, “it is very dark here."

(c.) A position wholly subordinate; as, “He left, as he told me, before the arrival of the steamer."

171. Exercise.

1. Separate the following sentences into their elements, and point out the quotations:

Then Judah came near unto him, and said, O, my lord, let thy servant, I pray thee, speak a word in my lord's ears. "Punctuality," replied Washington, “is an angel virtue.” "Tell me, my son," said he, "did you ever hear of any who are called ungrateful?" Try the spirits,

Changes of person, &c., in indirect quotation. Different relations of the quoted passage. Interrogation point, when used. Position of leading clause.

666

whether they be of God. He asked, whether they were friends or foes (170, 7). 'Why have you come so late?' was the prompt inquiry." The question, "Where shall the funds be obtained?" seemed not to have entered their minds. Let me ask you if your resolutions are as firm as when you first set out in the spiritual life. The Scriptures inform us how we may obtain eternal life. It is natural to man, as Patrick Henry eloquently said, to indulge in the illusions of hope. I am not to discuss the question, whether the souls of men are naturally equal. But I would ask, does the recollection of Bunker's Hill, Saratoga, and Yorktown, afford no pleasure?

2. Show which quotations are DIRECT, and which are INDIRECT.

3. Show which contain STATEMENTS or COMMANDS, and which INQUIRIES.

172. Simple, Complex, and Compound Elements. 1. When an element of either class expresses a single idea, without addition or modification, it is a simple element; as, “An honest man; a man of honesty; a man who is honest."

2. The simple subject is called the grammatical subject; the simple predicate, the grammatical predicate. The same distinction might be made in the other elements. Thus, we have the simple or grammatical adjective, objective, or adverbial element.

3. When a simple or grammatical element receives the addition of another simple element, joined to it subordinately (160, 1, 6), to modify its meaning, the two unite and form one element, called a complex or logical element; as, “A very honest man; a man of extreme honesty; a man who is perfectly honest.'

4. A complex or logical element is the simple or grammatical element with all its modifications, and may first be considered as a whole, and then separated into its simple parts.

5. In this case, the grammatical or leading element is called the principal element or basis, and gives its own name and properties to the whole group.

Thus, in the sentence, "They improved the opportunities which they enjoyed," the objective element is "the opportunities which they enjoyed;" opportunities is the basis, limited by the adjective clause "which they enjoyed."

6. An element may be subordinate to one and principal to another; as, "They discovered huge masses of ice.”

Here "masses" is subordinate to "discovered," and principal to the phrase "of ice."

Elements-simple, complex, and compound. The basis.

7. When a simple or a complex element receives the addition of another joined to it coördinately (160, 1, b.), the two unite (159 and 160), and form one compound element; as, " Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution."

173. Exercise.

1. Separate the following sentences into their elements, and point out those which are SIMPLE, COMPLEX, or COMPOUND :—

The character of Milton was peculiarly distinguished by loftiness of thought. The place was worthy of such a trial. Neither military nor civil pomp was wanting. Poetry is the handmaid of true philosophy and morality. The style and the eloquence and structure of their orations were equally different. That their poetry is almost uniformly mournful, and that their views of nature were dark and dreary, will be allowed by all who admit the authenticity of Ossian. If the mighty pyramid had any purpose beyond that of a mausoleum, such purpose has perished from history and from tradition. To deprive me of liberty, to torture me, or to imprison me, is not your right. One of the first lessons of a judicious education is, Learn to think and to discriminate.

174. Elements of the Simple Sentence.

1. The elements of the simple sentence may be,— (a.) SUBSTANTIVE, ADJECTIVE, or ADVERBIAL.

(b.) PRINCIPAL or SUBORDINATE (156).

(c.) WORDS or PHRASES.

(d.) SIMPLE, COMPLEX, or COMPOUND.

2. The simple sentence is distinguished from all others, by

the fact that it has but one proposition ·

being a clause.

no one of its elements

175. Varieties of the Elements.

1. The simple subject may be,—

(a.) A noun; as, "Kings reign."

(b.) A pronoun; as, "He lives;" "They come ;" "Who knows?"

(c.) An adjective used as a noun; as, "The wicked flee."

(d.) A word, letter, or symbol (35, 5); as, "Is is a verb;" "P is a mute." (e.) A substantive phrase; as, "To steal is base."

2. The simple predicate may be,

(a.) A verb,-copula and attribute combined; as, "The sun shines."
(b.) The copula and participial attribute; as, "We are reading."
(c.) The copula and adjective attribute; as, "The sea was boisterous."

The simple sentence. Its elements.