160. Union of Elements.

1. Two elements may be united,

(a.) With or without a connective.

(b.) Coördinately or subordinately; that is, so that both unite equally to express one general idea which may be employed to modify a third, or so that one shall depend upon and modify the other.

Thus, in the sentence, " An industrious-scholar-studies-his lessonattentively," the five elements (157, 1) are joined without the use of a connective. But in the sentence," The leaves of the aspen-are trembling— in the breeze," the elements are all joined by the connectives of, are, and in. In the sentence,-"We prosecuted our journey-by day and by night," the two adverbial elements are joined to each other coördinately by “and” (159, 4), and to the predicate subordinately by the preposition “by.”

2. Coördinate elements are always joined to each other by some one of the coördinate conjunctions (143); and should each coördinate part contain in itself a subordinate connective, this last is used to join it to the common element, as, for example, “by” in the sentence above.

3. When the connection between two united elements is subordinate, it is always without a connective in elements of the first form (single words), and with connectives expressed or understood in all other cases. In the first case, the relation is shown either by the position or by the altered form of the words; as, "He industrious-ly employ-s all his powers."

4. Coördinate connectives form no part of either of the connected elements. But subordinate connectives form an important part of the elements which they introduce. The subordinate connectives are either the prepositions, and to of the infinitive; or the relative pronouns, conjunctions, and the conjunctive adverbs (143, 12), 139). The copula forms a part of the predicate, and joins two elements, both of which are essential, and are hence called principal, yet they are not coördinate.

5. A proposition without a connective expressed or understood, is usually a principal proposition. In direct quotations (170), however, the quoted proposition is not incorporated into the sentence as an original idea of the speaker (150, 9), but still remains as a thought of its author; hence, though subordinate in construction, it has no connective; as, "He said, I shall neither confess nor deny." Compare with this, "He said that he should neither confess nor deny."

6. While two coördinate elements unite to express a combined idea, the one does not enter into the structure of the other; but the subordinate element constitutes, as it were, an organic part of the principal element.

161. Mutual Relation of Elements.

1. The principal element always controls or governs the subordinate.

Elements united with or without a connective,-coördinately, subordinately. Control of the principal element.

2. This it does by causing the subordinate element (a.) To agree with itself, or

(b.) To take some particular case, mode, or tense.

3. The former is called agreement or concord, and the latter government. Thus, the adjective implying number, agrees in number with the noun; as, "These (not this) books;"—the verb agrees in number and person with the subject; as, "I walk;"-the predicate noun or pronoun agrees in case with the subject; as, "I am he." So also the noun in apposition. The government of the superior term is effected either directly; as, "Solomon's temple ;"-or by means of a connective; as, "The temple of Solomon." So also of the objective case, "We saw him," "We looked at him."

4. The subordinate element always modifies or limits the principal.

5. This it does by restricting or extending its application; as, "The people (not all, but those) of Maine," "All men are mortal." In the first example the phrase "of Maine" limits the application of "people" by showing what people, and excluding all others.

6. This office of the subordinate term is that which enables us to restrict the meaning of a general term so as to individualize its application.

Thus, man is a general term, and applies equally well to any one of the race, but "The MAN who was first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen," points out as definitely a single man as does the name George Washington. The term which thus restricts or extends the meaning of another is said to limit or modify it.

7. Co-ordinate elements neither govern nor modify each other. 8. That is, the one in no way affects the case, mode, tense, number, person, agreement, or application of the other.

162. Exercise.

1. Separate the following sentences into their ELEMENTS (154), and tell the RANK of each.

Soft stillness and the night become the touches of sweet harmony.

The man that hath not music in himself,

Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds,

Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils.

Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, comes dancing from the east.

All the triumphs of truth and genius over prejudice and power, in every country, and in every age, have been the triumphs of Athens.

The way was long-the wind was cold,

The minstrel was infirm and old.

Modification of the subordinate element. Relation of coördinate elements.

2. Tell which are of the first, second, and third RANK.

3. Tell which are united CO-ORDINATELY, which SUBORDINATELY, which WITH, and which WITHOUT, a connective.

4. Tell which elements CONTROL or govern others, which MODIFY, which neither CONTROL nor MODIFY.

163. Principal Elements.

and

1. The principal elements are the highest in rank (157, 1), and are essential to the formation of a sentence. They are the subject, and the predicate (150, 3, 4).

2. The subject is a word, or a group of words, used to represent that of which something is affirmed; as, "The sea roars;' "To err is human;" "That Christianity will become the religion of all nations, is declared in the Scriptures."

3. The predicate is a word, or a group of words, used to represent that which is affirmed of the subject; as, "The day dawns ;" "The affair is to be investigated;" "Our hope was, that the wind would drive us to the opposite shore."

4. The subject represents some object (35, 2), and the predicate some attribute of that object; as, "The city is populous;" ," "The morning light is breaking."

5. Attributes are of three kinds :

(a.) Those which denote the class of objects; as, beast, bird, tree.
(b.) Those which denote the qualities of objects; as, good, old, sweet.
(c.) Those which denote the actions of objects; as, run, crawl, fly.

6. In some cases, the attribute denotes merely the state of the object; as, "The tree stands," "The prisoner is in health."

7. The union of the attribute with its object may be represented in two ways:

or,

(a.) It may be predicated of it; as, "The sky is blue;" "The sea is rough;" "Reptiles are poisonous;" (b.) It may be assumed of it; as, ous reptiles."

"blue sky;" "rough sea;" "poison

8. This distinction is fundamental; if no attribute is predicated, we cannot have a sentence, no matter how many may be assumed. The one is called the predicative combination, the other the adjective or attributive. The one is a formal statement (Lat. "predicare," to tell, to declare) of a present opinion or judgment of the speaker; the other is an informal assumption (Lat. "assumere," to take, as if conceded, or granted) of a previous opinion

Principal elements. The subject. The predicate. Attributes of class, quality, action. Attributes predicated-assumed.

or judgment, not now asserted, but supposed to be granted by the hearer. The one is a proposition (150, 2), the other is not (although it presupposes one), but is a mere appendage to one. A predicated action is represented by a verb; an assumed action by a participle, that is, the former asserts something of a noun, the latter assumes the same and thereby limits the noun.

9. The attribute, when predicated, is joined to the subject either directly, or by some form of the verb "to be," called the copula. When the copula is employed, it connects the attribute to the subject by predicating it. When the copula and attribute are united in the verb, the latter contains the power to predicate its own attribute (80).

10. Besides the copula, several verbs, such as become, seem, appear, and the passives is made, is appointed, is elected, is created, is constituted, is rendered, is named, is styled, is called, is esteemed, is thought, is considered, &c., &c., perform the office of the copula, and are hence called copulative verbs.

164. Subordinate Elements.

1. The subordinate elements are those which depend upon and modify (161, 4) the principal elements. They are (a.) The adjective or attributive element;

(b.) The objective element;

(c) The adverbial element.

2. These elements are used to give greater definiteness to a proposition by limiting the application of its principal terms (161, 6).

3. The adjective element is any word, or group of words, added to the subject (or the noun in any relation), and is used to show what kind, what, of what, how many, or whose; as, “White clouds were seen in the west;" These hands have ministered to my necessities;" " Three regiments of volunteers were enlisted;" "Those who expect favors must learn to be obliging."

4. The objective element is a word, or group of words, added usually to a transitive verb, and is used to complete its meaning by showing what, whom, to what, to whom, &c.; as, "The boy opened the door;" "Pharaoh made Joseph governor over the land;" ;" "He gave me a book."

5. The object may be either single or double, direct or indirect.

6. Certain adjectives, and even the adverbs derived from them, require the addition of an indirect object to complete their meaning; as, "He was conscious of his weakness;" "He was like his father," "They came agreeably to promise."

7. The adverbial element is any word, or group of words, added

The copula. Copulative verbs. Subordinate elements. The adjective eleThe objective element. The adverbial element.

ment.

to a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, and is used to show place, time, cause, or manner; "We approached slowly;" "They came in the spring;" "They stopped where night overtook them."

8. Adverbial elements of whatever form, like adverbs, denote place, time,

cause, or manner.

165. Exercise.

1. Separate the following sentences into their elements:—

The principle which gave a peculiar coloring to every feature of Isabella's mind was piety. Death is the season which brings our affections to the test. Has reason fled from our borders? To err is human; to forgive, divine. That high moral excellence is true greatness cannot be denied. I have forgotten why I called thee back. There are plenty of men who become distinguished by the predominance of one single faculty, or the exercise of a solitary virtue. She moves a goddess. Pale mourned the lily where the rose had died. Now fades the glimmering landscape from the sight. Deep in the wave is a coral grove. The eldest son of the British sovereign is styled the Prince of Wales. 2. Tell which are PRINCIPAL, and which SUBORDINATE.

3. Tell which subjects or predicates are WORDS or GROUPS of words: 4. Tell which predicates denote CLASS, which QUALITY, and which ACTION. 5. ASSUME each predicate of its subject.

6. Tell which predicates have a COPULA or COPULATIVE verb.

7. Point out the ADJECTIVE, OBJECTIVE, and ADVERBIAL elements, and tell which are single words, and which are groups of words.

166. Elements of the First Class.-Words.

1. When a word, expressing an idea without a connective (155, 3, a.), is used as the subject, predicate, or part immediately depending upon either, it is a sentence-element of the first class.

EXAMPLE." Constant-boasting-always-betrays-incapacity."

2. When such a word depends upon one of the subordinate elements, it is of the third rank (159, 2), and though an element of the first class, it is an element of an element, that is, forms part of a complex element; "We hoped to find employment."

as,

3. All words, thus used, perform the office of the substantive, adjective, or adverb (156, 2).

A word-when a sentence-element-when not an element. A word-substantive, adjective, or adverbial.