16. A simple sentence contains but one proposition; as, "The winds blow."

17. A complex sentence contains two or more dissimilar propositions; as, "When the wind blows, the trees bend."

18. A compound sentence contains two or more similar propositions; as, "The wind blows, and the trees bend."

NOTE. A sentence containing similar subordinate propositions, must have at least one principal proposition, to express a thought. Hence, such sentences as "I neither knew what I was, where I was, nor from whence I came," are not compound, but complex or partial compounds (182), even though they contain similar propositions.

151. Exercise.

Tell which of the following sentences are SIMPLE, which are COMPLEX, and which are COMPOUND. Classify them, as in (149).

In the production of order, all men recognise something sacred. Decide not by authoritative rules when they are inconsistent with reason. Though he were as rich as Croesus, still would man be dissatisfied with his condition. Pope had perhaps the judgment of Dryden; but Dryden certainly wanted the diligence of Pope. The emperor Augustus was a patron of the fine arts. Good and evil are inseparable companions; but the latter often hides behind the back of the former. Tell me, when it was that you felt yourself most strongly inclined to go astray.

152. Union of entire Sentences.

1. Entire sentences of the foregoing classes may unite without conjunctions, by a simple succession, to form paragraphs or other general divisions of discourse.

2. This succession is sometimes governed by the order of time, sometimes by the order of dependence, or by some other relation of the thoughts.

3. Sentences should be separated from each other by the proper punctuation marks (241, 7).

4. Sometimes one of the coördinate conjunctions (143, 1) is placed at the beginning of an entire sentence, to express more strongly its connection with the preceding sentence; as, “Her (Athens') power is, indeed, manifested at the bar, in the senate, in the field of battle, in the school of philosophy. But these are not her glory."-Macaulay

A simple sentence. A complex sentence. A compound sentence.

SYNTAX OF ELEMENTS.

153. Definition.

1. The elements of a sentence are its component parts, each standing for an idea and its relation to some other idea; as, “The shepherd-gave-the alarm-when he discovered the approach of the wolf."

2. In this example we have the person (who), the action, the object (what), and the time (when). The parts employed to express these ideas, whether words or groups of words, are elements (147, 4).

3. Every element, whether long or short, should first be taken as a whole, and regarded as the expression of a complete idea; afterwards, its nature, rank, form, and structure should be considered.

154. General Division of the Elements.

1. An element

may be

(a.) SUBSTANTIVE, ADJECTIVE, or ADVERBIAL.

(b.) PRINCIPAL or SUBORDINATE.

(c.) A WORD, & PHRASE, or a CLAUSE.

(d.) Simple, comPLEX, or compound.

2. These divisions depend upon the nature, the rank, the form, and the structure of the elementary parts.

155. General Description of the Elements.

1. An element in any of its forms, is

(a.) Substantive, when it has the construction and use of the noun; as, "That one should steal is base."

(b.) Adjective, when it has the construction and use of the adjective; as, "Wisdom's ways are ways of pleasantness."

(c.) Adverbial, when it has the construction and use of the adverb; as, "The voice of the Lord was heard in the garden."

2. An element in any of its forms, is

Principal, when it expresses the chief idea, as, for example, the subject or the predicate (163, 1).

Subordinate, when it depends upon, and modifies the principal, as, for example, the adjective, objective, or adverbial elements (164, 1).

Elements of sentences. Division of elements. Elements substantive, adjective, adverbial, principal, subordinate.

3. An element has the form of

(a.) A word, when a single word expresses both an idea and its relation (153, 1); as, "A gentle-breeze-fanned-him."

(b.) A phrase, when one word (usually a noun or pronoun) expresses the idea, and another (usually a preposition) the relation; as, "He travelledin Europe."

(c.) A clause, when a proposition (150, 6, b.) expresses the idea, and some conjunctive word the relation; as, "I know-that my Redeemer liveth.”

4. These three forms are called the first, second, and third classes of the elements.

5. An element is, in its structure,

(a.) Simple, when the form (whether a word, phrase, or clause) expresses an idea without modification or addition; as, "Paul-preached-in Rome." (b.) Complex, when the idea expressed by a simple element, is modified by a subordinate element; as, "They were discovered-in the solitude of a dense forest."

(c.) Compound, when, to one idea is added an idea similar (159, 3) and grammatically equal; as, "A good and wise prince ascended the throne." (6.) An expression may be either an element of the sentence, or an element of an element.

The following are examples of the elements in each form :

SIMPLE. "We left early," "We left at dawn;" "We left—when morning dawned."

COMPLEX. "We left very early;" "We left at early dawn;" "We left -when the morning began to dawn in the east.”

COMPOUND. "We were employed-early and late." "We were employed -at noon and at night." "We were present-when the train arrived and when it left."

156. Nature of the Elements.

1. All component parts of a sentence, whether words or groups of words, are divided into,—

(a.) Those which express ideas, called the materials of the sentence. (b.) Those which unite these, called connectives.

2. The materials of the sentence considered apart from connectives, are either substantive, adjective, or adverbial.

3. The connectives are coördinate or subordinate, according as they join parts similar or dissimilar (159, 3).

4. Sometimes, one and the same word, is a connective, and at the same time forms a material part of the element which it connects. Such is the case with the relative pronouns (74, 1, also 77, 1, 2, &c.) and conjunctive adverbs

An element, a word-phrase-clause; simple, complex, compound. Materials of the sentence. Connectives.

(143, 18). So, also, the verb when attributive (80, 5), is equivalent to the participle (adjective) and the copula (connective). Hence, all the parts of speech arrange themselves in the two classes above (1, a. b.) thus,-The noun, and the pronoun, as such, and the infinitive of the verb, are substantive; tho adjective, including all the forms of limiting and qualifying adjectives, and the participle or attributive part of the verb, are adjective; the adverbs of all forms make up the third class-or adverbial. The interjection forms no part of the sentence. The conjunctions, the prepositions, the connective value of the relative pronouns, the connective element of conjunctive adverbs, and the copulative part of the verb, are connectives.

5. These three kinds of material enter into the sentence, taking all, or nearly all, the constructions of the part of speech which they represent, while the connectives are used to join them either coördinately or subordinately, as their several relations require.

157. Number of the Elements.

1. A sentence may have five distinct elements,

(a.) The SUBJECT,

(b.) The PREDICATE,

Principal elements.

(c.) The ADJECTIVE ELEMENT, (d) The OBJECTIVE ELEMENT,

Subordinate elements.

(e.) The ADVERBIAL ELEMENT, EXAMPLE. "Coming-EVENTS-CAST―their shadows—before."

2. The principal elements are essential to the existence of the sentence; the subordinate elements are used to modify and define the principal.

66

3. Besides these, we may have in connection with a sentence, the name of the person to whom the language is addressed; as, Children, have ye any meat?" This, though not properly an element of the sentence, is intimately associated with it, and is sometimes called the compellative.

4. The compellative is either a noun or pronoun in the nominative independent, and may be limited, like a noun or pronoun, in any other relation; as," Ye, who listen with credulity to the whispers of fancy, and pursue with eagerness the phantoms of hope, * attend to the history of Rasselas,

Prince of Abyssinia."

158. Exercise.

1. Separate the following sentences into their ELEMENTS (155, 1, 2, 3, 4), so as to represent the prominent IDEAS:

The trees are leafless. A life of prayer is a life of heaven.

The

Five elements,-Subject, predicate, adjective element, objective element, adverbial element. Compellative.

Swiss love liberty. He was not clad in costly raiment. Henry begged that they would come to his assistance. His parents mourned his untimely death. He labored diligently to complete the work. The quality of mercy is not strained. Simon, son of Jonas, lovest thou me? He jests at scars, that never felt a wound. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank! Let me stand here till thou remember it. Peace, tranquillity, and innocence, shed their mingled delights around him. Approach and behold, while I lift from his sepulchre, its covering.

2. Tell which are PRINCIPAL, and which SUBORDinate.

3. Point out the SUBJECTS, PREDICATES, ADJECTIVE, OBJECTIVE, and ADVERBIAL elements.

4. Tell which are SUBSTANTIVE, which ADJECTIVE, and which ADVERBIAL. 5. Tell which are SIMPLE, which COMPLEX, and which COMPOUND.

6. Tell which are WORDS, which PHRASES, and which CLAUSES.

159. Rank of Elements.

1. The rank of an element is its degree of subordination, reckoning in the order of dependence from the subject or the predicate. Thus,

In the sentence,-"Catiline plunged into every species of iniquity," "Catiline" and "plunged" are of the first rank; "into species," which depends upon "plunged," is of the second rank; while "every" and "of iniquity," depending upon "species," are of the third rank. Hence, it will be seen that elements may have different degrees of subordination.

2. All elements below the second rank, are not to be regarded as sentence-elements, but merely parts, or elements of such elements. Hence, the proper elements of the sentence are the subject, the predicate, and the elements immediately depending on these (157, 2).

3. In case two elements of the same rank should be joined to a common element, they may express,

(a.) Similar ideas, and be joined to each other; as, "Alfred the Great was a brave [and] pious, and patriotic prince;"- or

(b.) Dissimilar ideas, and be wholly disconnected from each other; as, "The enemy rushed (how) forth (when) at night (where) upon the defenceless city."

NOTE. Two dissimilar elements of the same rank never unite with each other, though both may be joined to a common term; but dissimilar elements of different ranks unite with each other.

4. Two united elements of the same rank are said to be coördinate; two united elements of different rank are said to be subordinate, the one to the other.

Rank of elements.

Sentence-elements. Similar and dissimilar elements.

Coördinate and subordinate elements.