eternally. They believe that it has three divisions, viz. lower, middle, and upper, and that there are numerous hells and heavens. All existing things are arranged under the two great Tattvas of Jīva, 'living soul,' and A-jīva, "inanimate objects.' Of living souls there are three kinds: a. Nitya-siddha, 'ever perfect,' as the Jina; b. Muktātman, 'liberated soul;' c. Baddhātman, 'bound soul,' or one bound by works and worldly associations. Material objects are sometimes classed under a Tattva called Pudgala, and some make seven, others nine Tattvas.

There are three 'gems' which together effect the soul's Moksha, 'liberation,' viz. a. right intuition (samyag-darśana); b. right knowledge (samyag-jñāna); c. right conduct (samyak-ćaritra). This last consists in observing five duties or vows of self-restraint (Vratas), thus: 1. Do not kill or injure; which Jainas carry to so preposterous an extreme that they strain water before drinking it, sweep the ground with a brush before treading on it, never eat or drink in the dark, and sometimes wear muslin before their mouths to prevent the risk of swallowing minute insects. Moreover, they never eat figs or any fruit containing seed, nor will they even touch flesh-meat with their hands. 2. Do not tell lies. 3. Steal not. 4. Be chaste and temperate in thought, word, and deed. 5. Desire nothing immoderately.

There are two classes of Jainas, as of Buddhists (see p. 57), viz. Śrāvakas, those who engage in lay or secular occupations, and Yatis, monks or ascetics, who are required to pluck out their hair or wear it cropped short. The latter are often collected in Mathas or 'monasteries,' being called Sadhu when not monastic. Jainas are sometimes called Syad-vādins, from their method of propounding seven modes of reconciling opposite views as to the possibility of anything existing or not existing (sapta-bhanga-naya, syād-vāda). It should be noted that they accord a sort

of modified worship to the Hindu gods (especially Brahmā, Vishnu, Śiva, and Gaṇeśa, as subordinate to the Jinas); and are even observers of caste, and claim to be regarded as Hindus, though rejecting the Hindu Veda. In Western India the priests of Jaina temples are Brāhmans.

The Ćārvākas.

Nothing is known about Ćārvāka, the Pyrrho and Epicurus of India and founder of the materialistic school. His system is the worst form of all heresies, and therefore honoured with the first place in Madhavācārya's Sarva-darśana-san-graha. In the Santi-parvan of the Maha-bhārata (1410, &c.) there is a story of a Rakshasa named Сārvāka, who, in the disguise of a mendicant Brahman, reviled Yudhishthira during his triumphant entry into Hastinapura, and uttered profane and heretical doctrines. He was, however, soon detected, and the real Brahmans, filled with fury, killed him on the spot. This legend may possibly rest on some basis of fact.

The creed of the Ĉārvākas, who are sometimes called Lokayatas or Lokāyatikas1, is said to have been derived from the Varhaspatya Sutras (Aphorisms of Vrihaspati). They reject all the Pramāņas, or 'sources of true knowledge,' except Pratyaksha, 'perception by the senses' (see p. 72); they admit only four Tattvas or 'eternal principles,' viz. earth, air, fire, and water, and from these intelligence (Caitanya) is alleged to be produced; they affirm that the soul is not different from the body; and, lastly, they assert that all the phenomena of the world are spontaneously produced, without even the help of Adrishta (see p. 69). I sum up their views with a version of a passage in the Sarvadarśana-san-graha (Iśvara-ćandra Vidyasagara's edition,

1

By some this name is given to a subdivision of the Ćārvākas. The name Сārvāka is applied to any adherent of the materialistic school; see Vedānta-sāra, 82-85.

p. 6), setting forth the opinions of the Carvāka materialists according to the supposed teaching of Vṛihaspati1. The sentiments, it will be perceived, are worthy of the most sceptical, materialistic, and epicurean of European writers: No heaven exists, no final liberation,

No soul, no other world, no rites of caste,
No recompense for acts; the Agnihotra 2,
The triple Veda, triple self-command 3,
And all the dust and ashes of repentance-
These yield a means of livelihood for men,
Devoid of intellect and manliness.

If victims slaughtered at a sacrifice

Are raised to heavenly mansions, why should not
The sacrificer immolate his father?

If offerings of food can satisfy 5

Hungry departed spirits, why supply

The man who goes a journey with provisions?
His friends at home can feed him with oblations.

If those abiding in celestial spheres

Are filled with food presented upon earth,

Why should not those who live in upper stories
Be nourished by a meal spread out below?

1 I have consulted Professor E. B. Cowell's appendix to Colebrooke's Essay, and Dr. Muir's prose translation as given by him in his article on 'Indian Materialists' (Royal Asiatic Society's Journal, vol. xix, art. xi). He compares a passage in the Vishņu-purāna III. 18, which contains. similar sentiments. Cf. also the speech of the rationalistic Brāhman Jāvāli, addressed to Rāma in the Rāmāyaṇa. 2 See note, p. 32.

3 Tri-danda, 'control over thoughts, words, and actions,' denoted by the three Dandas or staves carried by ascetics. See Manu XII. 10, 11.

4

* This, as Dr. Muir points out, refers to Manu V. 42, where it is stated that animals duly sacrificed are conveyed to mansions of supreme felicity. Cf. Mahā-bhārata, Āśvamedhika-parvan 793 &c.

5 This is a hit at the Sraddha, one of the most important of all Hindū religious acts, when oblations of cakes and libations of water are made to the spirits of deceased fathers, grandfathers, and progenitors. The strict observance of these ceremonies at regular intervals is at least an evidence of the strength of filial feeling among Hindūs. Respect for parents and their memory has all the sanction of religion, and is even more insisted on as a religious duty than in Europe.

While life endures let life be spent in ease
And merriment1; let a man borrow money
From all his friends and feast on melted butter.
How can this body when reduced to dust
Revisit earth? and if a ghost can pass

To other worlds, why does not strong affection
For those he leaves behind attract him back?
The costly rites enjoined for those who die
Are a mere means of livelihood devised
By sacerdotal cunning-nothing more.

The three composers of the triple Veda
Were rogues, or evil spirits, or buffoons.
The recitation of mysterious words

And jabber of the priests is simple nonsense.

The Eclectic School represented by the Bhagavad-gītā.

As a fitting conclusion to the subject of Indian philosophy let me endeavour to give some idea of one of the most interesting and popular works in the whole range of Sanskrit literature, called Bhagavad-gītā, the Song of Bhagavat-that is, the mystical doctrines (Upanishadaḥ3) sung by 'the adorable one'-a name applied to Krishna when identified with the supreme Being. This poem, abounding in sentiments borrowed from the Upanishads, and commented on by the great Vedantic teacher Sankarāćārya, may be taken to represent the Eclectic school of Indian philosophy. As the regular systems or Darśanas were more or less developments of the Upanishads, so the Eclectic school is connected with those mystical treatises

1 'Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die,' 1 Cor. xv. 32. See Dr. Muir's note. Compare such Horatian precepts as Epod. XIII. 3, &c.

2 Two curious Vedic words, jarbharī and turpharī, are given in the text as specimens of what I suppose modern scoffers might call 'Vedic slang.' They occur, as Dr. Muir points out, in Rig-veda X. 106. 6, and Nirukta XIII. 5. For their explanation see Böhtlingk and Roth and my Sanskrit-English Dictionary.

At the end of each chapter the name of the chapter is given in the plural; thus, Iti śrī-bhagavad-gītāsu upanishatsu, &c. See note 1, p. 138.

through the Śvetāśvatara Upanishad1 of the Black Yajurveda (see p. 45). This latter is doubtless a comparatively modern work, but whether composed before or after the Bhagavad-gītā, certain it is that the design of both appears to be the same. They both aim at reconciling the conflicting views of different systems, and both do so by attempting to engraft the Sankhya and Yoga upon Vedanta doctrines". Although, therefore, the order of creation and much of the cosmogony and other Sankhya views are retained in both, the paramount sovereignty of the supreme Soul of the universe (Brahma) as the source and ultimate end of all created things, and yet wholly independent of all such creations, is asserted by both.

Some extracts from the Svetasvatara, describing the character and attributes of this supreme Being, who is everything and in everything, have already been given at p. 45. The following are additional extracts from the first and third chapters (Röer, pp. 50, 55, 58):

This (absolute Brahma) should be meditated on as eternal and as abiding in one's own soul; for beside him there is nothing to be known (nātaḥ param veditavyam hi kincit). As oil in seeds (tileshu), butter in cream, water in a river, and fire in wood, so is that absolute Soul perceived within himself by a person who beholds him by means of truth and by austerity.

1 The name of this Upanishad is derived from a sage, Svetāśvatara, who, at the end of the work (VI. 21), is said to have declared the doctrine of Brahma to the most excellent of the four orders. It has been translated by Dr. Röer into English, and nearly all by Professor Weber into German (Indische Studien I. 422-429). The author must have been a Saiva (not a Vaishnava, like the author of the Bhagavad-gītā), as he identifies Rudra with the supreme Being. According to Wilson, Sveta, 'white,' Śvetāśva, 'white-horsed,' Sveta-sikha, 'white-haired,' and Śvetalohita, 'white-blooded,' were names of four disciples of Siva. Weber suspects here a mission of Syrian Christians, and thinks that both the Upanishad and the Gita, the latter especially, may have borrowed ideas from Christianity.

2 See Dr. Röer's introduction for a full explanation of this.