His a friend, but you have not lost his instructions. example was not buried with him, but happily for you, (happily because you are desirous of availing yourself of it), still lives in your remembrance, and is cherished in your best affections. COWPER, "Letters." INTERNAL STATE OF ROME IN THE MIDDLE AGES. Rome itself was throughout the middle ages very little disposed to acquiesce in the government of her bishop. His rights were indefinite and unconfirmed by positive law; the emperor was long sovereign, the people always meant to be free. Besides the common causes of insubordination and anarchy among the Italians, which applied equally to the capital city, other sentiments more peculiar to Rome preserved a continual, though not uniform influence for many centuries. There still remained enough in the wreck of that vast inheritance to swell the bosoms of her citizens with a consciousness of their own dignity. They bore the venerable name, they contemplated the monuments of art and empire, and forgot, in the illusions of national pride, that the tutelar gods of the building were departed for ever. About the middle of the twelfth century these recollections were heightened by the eloquence of Arnold of Brescia, a political heretic who preached against the temporal jurisdiction of the hierarchy. In a temporary intoxication of fancy they were led to make a ridiculous show of self-importance towards Frederic Barbarossa, when he came to receive the imperial crown; but the German sternly chided their ostentation, and chastised their resistance. HALLAM, "Middle Ages." CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. The coal-bearing strata, with accompanying millstone grit and mountain limestone, are by far the most valuable of our geological formations, giving us bright winter fires, brilliantly lighted streets, iron roads, the staple of locomotive engines and locomotive power, ships which can plough the ocean against wind and tide, lead, silver, and zinc, building stone, implements for grinding corn, manure, and cement, materials for elegant mantel-pieces and decorative works, with perpetually gushing, copious springs, and some rare gems of natural landscape, "So wondrous wild, the whole might seem, MILNER, "Our Home Islands." HENRY VIII. Nature had been prodigal to him of her rarest gifts. In person he is said to have resembled his grandfather, Edward IV., who was the handsomest man in Europe. His form and bearing were princely; and amidst the easy freedom of his address, his manner remained majestic. No knight in England could match him in the tournament except the Duke of Suffolk; he drew with ease as strong a bow as was borne by any, yeoman of his guard; and these powers were sustained in unfailing vigour by a temperate habit and by constant exercise. Of his intellectual ability we are not left to judge from the suspicious panegyrics of his contemporaries. His state papers may be placed by the side of those of Wolsey or of Cromwell, and they lose nothing in the comparison. Though they are broadly different, the perception is equally clear, the expression equally powerful, and they breathe throughout an irresistible vigour of purpose. In addition to this, he had a fine musical taste, carefully cultivated; he spoke and wrote in four languages; and his knowledge of a multitude of other subjects, with which his versatile ability made him conversant, would have formed the reputation of any ordinary man. He was among the best physicians of his age; he was his own engineer, inventing improvements in artillery, and new constructions in ship building, and this not with the condescending incapacity of a royal amateur, but with thorough workmanlike understanding. FROUDE, "History of England." THE TIDES. The next subject to which Newton applied the principle of gravity was the tides of the ocean. The philosophers of all ages had recognized the connection between the phenomena of the tides and the position of the moon. The College of Jesuits at Coimbra, and subsequently Antonio de Dominis and Kepler, distinctly referred the tides to the attraction of the waters of the earth by the moon; but so imperfect was the explanation which was given of the phenomena, that Galileo ridiculed the idea of lunar attraction, and substituted for it a fallacious explanation of his own. That the moon is the principal cause of the tides is obvious from the well-known fact, that it is high water at any given place a short time after she is in the meridian of that place; and that the sun performs a secondary part in their production, may be proved from the circumstance, that the highest tides take place when the sun, the moon, and the earth are in the same straight line-that is, when the force of the sun conspires with that of the moon; and that the lowest tides take place when the lines drawn from the sun and moon to the earth are at right angles to each other-that is, when the force of the sun acts in opposition to that of the moon. Sir D. BREWSTER, "Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and ARCHITECTURE, MANNERS AND CUSTOMS, ETC., OF THE TUDOR PERIOD. I. The Tudor age witnessed great changes in domestic architecture. The castle gave way to the mansion, and mere strength to comfort and ornament. The old Gothic was gradually blended with the Italian style, and ultimately superseded by it. The habitations of the poorer classes were still very wretched, and consisted simply of rafters covered with wattle-work and clay. Better houses were built in the towns, but these were chiefly occupied by opulent tradesmen. The internal arrangements were rude and uncomfortable. The furniture was clumsy and inconvenient. II. Contrary to modern notions, early meals were regarded as fashionable. The upper classes dined at eleven, and supped between five and six. The middle classes took the same meals an hour later, and labouring people an hour later still. The most popular sports were bull and bear baiting, wrestling, archery, and hunting. The fare of the common people consisted chiefly of salt fish, salt beef, coarse barley, bread, and beer. The upper classes lived more luxuriously, and devoted great attention to culinary improvements. The principal articles of male attire were the doublet or jacket, the short cloak, the high-crowned hat, and the sword. The dress of the ladies was not so graceful, being greatly disfigured by enormous ruffs, and still more farthingales. enormous Rev. EVAN DANIEL, "Outlines of English History." CLASSICAL STUDIES. Besides the influence which classical studies have in promoting the more exact knowledge of our own and other tongues, they can also be used as the occasion for arousing an interest in many other branches of learning, and be made, as it were, the basis upon which the superstructure of knowledge in those branches may be easily and surely built. Thus, any geographical allusion in the text of an author may be used by the teacher as the starting-point from which he may convey, and by the student as a centre around which he may gather much information about the past and present political or local divisions, physical or general features, trade and productions, of the country or locality referred to; and in this way the student may acquire a considerable knowledge of commercial, political, and physical geography, both ancient and modern. By seizing in a similar manner upon the occasion afforded by any biographical or historical allusion, explaining its meaning and reference, adding information where it may be necessary, and comparing, where comparison may be possible and appropriate, events of national or personal history recorded, or referred to, in the text, the classical teacher may not only awaken a taste for, and inculcate the principles of, historical and biographical research, but also teach a great deal about the history of other countries, and the biography of other men. Rev. Dr. JOSHUA JONES, "Classical Studies." FIELD SPORTS AND AGRICULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. I. The favourite diversions of the middle ages, in the intervals of war, were those of hunting and hawking. Though hunting had ceased to be a necessary means of procuring food, it was a very convenient resource, on which the wholesomeness and comfort as well as the luxury of the table depended. Before the natural pastures were improved, and new kinds of fodder for cattle discovered, it was impossible to maintain the summer stock during the cold season. Hence a portion of it was regularly slaughtered, and salted for winter provision. We may suppose that, when no alternative was offered but these salted meats, even the leanest venison was devoured with relish. There was somewhat more excuse; therefore, for the severity with which the lords of forests and manors preserved the beasts of the chase, than if |